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ELEMENTS 



ENGLISH GRAM MAE, 



ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETICAL; 



ARRANGED IN 



PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES. 



/ 
/ 

BY WM. C. KEN YON, A. M. 
t\ 

S ECOND EDIT ION. 

ROCHESTER : 

PUBLISHED BY ERASTUS DARROW 

NEW-YORK: BAKER & SCRIBNER. 

PHILADELPHIA: HOGAN & THOMPSON. 

BOSTON: PERKINS <fc CO. 

1849. 



^ ' 









Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1819, 

Bt \Y M . G . K E N Y O N , 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Cbxxtf aftfse United ?i.*ie« for the Northern 
District of New- York. 



STEREOTYPED BY E. G. CHAMPLIN & CO*,* 

9 Spruce-street, N. Y. 

C. A. ALVORD, PUINTES. 



PREFACE. 



DESIGN OF THE WORK. 

A thoeougk knowledge of English Grammar has become an indespensable ac- 
quirement in a good English education. The theory of English Grammar has been 
iong taught; and many eminent teachers hare, by their ingenuity and perseverance, 
eucceeded in combining much of practice with the theory. Text books, that em- 
brace practice as well as theory, are very rare. 

The author of the following pages would make no ungenerous criticisms ; yet 
deficiency of practical exercises, arranged in view of the successive presentation 
of principles, is considered to be a point where many of our old authors, and not 
a few of our more recent authors, on the subject of English Grammar, have failed. 
Many of these have unfolded the theory in a clear and able manner — have furnished 
valuable aids to the teacher ; but have not adapted their productions to the wants 
of the scholar. To this stricture, there are a few honorable exceptions among re- 
cent authors ; yet, being in a respectable minority, their works do not find their 
way to public notice so generally as is desirable. 

Another source of difficulty in our Grammars, is bad arrangement. Nothing is 
more common, than to find definitions that can not be understood, because they de- 
pend on definitions yet to be given. This criticism could be justified by hundreds 
of extracts, if necessary. Now, it is as unphilosophical to present the fundamental 
principles of Grammar, without an abundance of illustrations and verifications of 
those principles as successively presented, as it would be to follow the same course 
in mathematics. How unattractive— how absolutely dry — how utterly useless, 
would be the presentation of the theorems of Geometry, unaccompanied by those 
demonstrations that convince the intelligence of the truth of each successive theo 
rem. And if, in addition to this lack of demonstration, theorems should be thrown. 
in that require, in order to comprehend them, a knowledge of many other theorems? 
which had not yet been presented and demonstrated, would Geometry be the de- 
lightful, entertaining, and eminently useful study that it now is 1 Why, then, is a 
course adopted in the presentation of the science of language, which would form a 
successful barrier to the acquisition of any branch of mathematics, in which a simi- 
lar plan of presentation should be pursued ? 

The custom of going through with all the principles of English Grammar, em- 
braced under the four general divisions of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody, before commencing any thing like an extensive practical application of 
these principles, in analyzing and synthetizing, presents almost insuperable ob- 
stacles to success in the study. When, by the efforts of the memory, unaccompa- 
nied and unaided by the perceptive, reflective, and constructive faculties of the 



IV PREFACE. 

intellect, a youth lias repeated, nearly verbatim, all the different parts of speech, 
with their peculiar variations — all the rules of Syntax, with many of their ex- 
planatory notes and exceptions — he is called upon to "commence parsing." Now, 
with this crude, undigested, heterogeneous mass of material floating loosely about * 
in the mind, — and by far the larger proportion of it having made its escape entirely, 
for it was committed (not learned) for the recitation, and forgotten much sooner * 
than committed, — he enters upon one of the most dark, uncertain, unphilosophical, 
and unenviable processes, that ever occupied the mind of a child. Instead of learn- 
ing the relations of words, propositions, and sentences ; how words limit, extend r 
or restrict, the meaning of each other ; the elements of the perfect structure ; the 
unequaled simplicity, beauty, grandeur, and amplitude, of the English language ; 
he is unprofitably and dryly conning over barren words, and endeavoring to apply 
to them a list of barren definitions and rules. Is it strange, then, that so many 
youth, after studying English Grammar several terms, become disgusted with it? 
It is rather strange, that so many have the courage to persevere in the unmeaning 
end profitless exercise so long. It proves that they possess elements of mind 
worthy to be enlisted in a better effort. "J & 

It was in view of trying to remedy some of these difficulties, that the preparation 
of this work was undertaken. How successfully the work has been accomplished, 
the public must judge. The author wishes it distinctly understood, that he 
professes to be only one among a few who have attempted to combine practice 
with theory in the study of Grammar. It was no flart of his intention to present 
new theories in relation to the science of the English language. The Grammar of 
the language may be susceptible of numerous modifications, in the method of ren- 
dering it practical as well as theoretical, but it is believed that the general founda- 
tion principles are too well established to admit of any very considerable, changes. 

Objections there may be, to the usual and long-established nomenclature of Eng- 
lish Grammar ; but here, again, the introduction of a new nomenclature would only 
eerve to confuse, without substantially obviating the objections. Nor, again, be it 
remembered, was it any # part of the author's purpose to attempt to simplify English 
Grammar. It can not be simplified. One mode of presentation may be more 
natural, and hence more simple, than another ; but such a thing as " English Gram- 
mar simplified," is a misnomer. True, the spirit of the age is one of high excite- 
ment, rapid movement, absolute impetuosity. Since steam and electricity have 
well nigh "annihilated time and space," some have drunk so deeply of the intoxi- 
cating charm, that they will have it that these same agents ought to annihilate in- 
tellect also. How can a different conclusion be drawn, since the craven demand, 
from too many directions, is, " Let us have something more simple, easier to be 
comprehended, that will not make such a demand upon our time." And authors 
and publishers have not been wanting, who, from motives not the most commend- 
able, have been willing to pander to this vitiated demand. Hence advertisements, 
"French in six easy lessons, without a master;" "Latin in six lessons, without a 
master ; " " Greek in six lessons, without a master." Surely, had the great Grecian 
Orator lived in this age of sixpenny humbugs, he would not have spent a number 
of years in the most laborious and persevering application to oratory ! By means 
of steam, lightning, and penny -publications, he would have been blown up to the 
proportional dimensions of a full-grown orator in less than three months, if the ad- 
vertisements, and "well-recommended productions," of the would-be savans of the 
&ge ? can be relied upon, 



PREFACE. V 

The rage, however, for something easier, more simple, is, after all, probably, no- 
thing more than a spasmodic offe^ion ; and time and patience will operate as a re- 
storative in bringing about a more healthy exercise of public sentiment. To the 
honor of the professional educators of our country, be it said, that they, as a body, 
have not been very forward in seconding these Utopian schemes of opening royal 
roads to the acquisition of science. 

The author would here remind the student and teacher, that this work is ar- 
ranged with reference to thorough scholarship. It is designed that every advance- 
ment made shall be a means of farther advancement. It will require a great 
amount of writing to prepare the successive exercises, yet not more than expe- 
rience has shown to be indispensably necessary to make the scholar a ready com- 
poser, and render the art of composition a pleasing and delightful exercise, instead 
of a difficult and irksome task. 



PLAN OF THE WORK. 

The plan of instruction laid down in these pages, is expressed with sufficient ac- 
curacy in the title-page. Nor is it an untried plan. It is one that has been pursued 
by the author, and his able associates, for the last eight years. The success which 
has, as they believe, attended the course pursued, induces hope that the same 
course may be useful, or at least may present a few useful hints, to those engaged 
in like occupations. The system of instruction is first analytical, and then synthet- 
ical. The first lessons embrace the most simple principles and constructions ; and 
each successive lesson introduces a new principle, bringing in, also, in connection 
with it, such of those already explained as may be necessary. 

As, in Geometry, the simplest elementary principles are first presented, followed 
by others, making each successive step depend on the preceding, till the whole 
structure is completed; so, in English Grammar, the plan of presentation should be 
kept constantly hi view. This is what has been attempted in the preparation, of 
this work. 

In accordance with the model adopted (Geometry) of having every exercise 
complete in itself, it became necessary to introduce punctuation into the very 
earliest exercises. This, it is believed, constitutes an entire new feature in the 
history of Grammar-making. For, though punctuation is of the utmost importance 
in a complete composition, yet it is, usually, one of the last subjects presented to 
the student. 

Part First is devoted to an analysis of the simplest structures of the language ; ex- 
amining the several parts of speech in their order, separately and collectively ; and 
the classification of simple sentences, including so much of punctuation as is re- 
quired for rendering the exercises complete. 

Part Second is devoted to an explanation of the peculiar variations of each part 
of speech, accompanied by numerous exercises in analysis and synthesis. All the 
rules of agreement, construction, and punctuation, required for the completion 
of these exercises, are designed to be introduced in their proper places. Thus, 
while all the principles are examined separately, they are again examined in then- 
connection and dependence, forming perfect sentences, advancing, at the same 
time, one upon another, by such gradual processes as to present no confusion to 
the mind of the industrious student, 



Vi PREFACE. 

Part Third is devoted to a recapitulation of the rules of agreement, construction, 
and punctuation, with such additional remarks and explanations as shall serve to 
perfect the scholar in his knowledge of prose composition. 

Part Fourth is devoted to a very brief view of poetry, intended as a mere intro- 
duction to that intensely interesting held of grammatical investigation. 

AIDS IN PREPARING THE WORK. 

The author has availed himself of such authorities on the subject of English 
Grammar as were accessible to him. From many of these he has derived invalu- 
able assistance ; yet, as in the plan of arrangement and presentation of subjects, 
this work was designed to be essentially different from any works consulted, the 
author made it a point seldom to examine authorities while preparing his work 
for the press. This may account for the fact that he has made no reference to 
authorities in any part of his labors. 

From his associates in teaching, he has received numerous hints and suggestions, 
that have aided him immeasurably more than any thing he has gathered from 
publications. He takes this occasion to say to them, that their favors are appre- 
ciated ; and to say to the public, that if this work shall be found to possess aaaff 
merit, much of it is due to the friendly counsels of his associates. 

PUBLICATION OF THE WORK. 

As the author was,, necessarily, several hundred miles from the place of publica- 
tion, while the work was going through the press, it is not impossible that occa- 
sional errors may have escaped observation, that might otherwise have been cor- 
rected. But it is believed that so faithful has been the supervision of the work 
made by the gentleman to whom the examination and correction of the proof sheets 
were committed, that fewer errors will be found than ordinarily occur in works 
that have passed through a number of editions. 

With these remarks, the author would submit his labors to the examination and 
decision of the public. He does not natter himself that he has presented a perfect 
work; yet he does not fear candid criticism — the more of it the better. He has 
nothing to defend but truth ; and, when it shall appear that he has erred, he will be 
most happy to make amendments in future editions. Every candid criticism, 
therefore, whether publicly or privately made, shall be most gratefully received, 
and treated with the most generous courtesy. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Prospect Gsove, Jan. 20 t 1849. 



INDEX. 



PART I. 



SECTION, SUBJECT. PAGE 

1. Language 1 

2. Propo sitions 2 

3. Sentences » 3 

4. Nouns 5- 

5. Verbs 6 

& Pronouns 8 

7. Adjectives - » 9 

8. Adverbs 11 

9. Prepositions and Phrases 13 

10. Punctuation 16 

11. Subject of the Verb— incomplex 

or complex . » .*. — .......... *. 18 



SECTION. SUBJECT. PAGE, 

12. Recapitulation on Nouns, Verbs, 

Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, 

and Prepositions 20 

13. Conjunctions and Compound Sen- 

tences 21 

14. Classification of Propositions .... 22 

15. Classification of Sentences 24 

16. Interjections 25 

17. Agent and Recipient — Intransitive 

and Transitive Verbs. 25 

18. Active and Passive Voice 23 

19. Explanatory Substantive 29' 

120. Independent Nouns. ,. 30* 



PART II. 



21. Divisions of Nouns— proper, com- 

mon, abstract, and collective . . . 

22. Variations of Nouns and Pro- 

nouns — person, number, gen- 
der, and case 

23. Person— first, second, third 

24. Number — singular and plural. . . 

25. Parsing 

26. Person and Number of the Verb. 

27. Gender — masculine and feminine . 

28. Agreement of Pronouns 

29. Case — nominative, possessive, ob- 

jective, and absolute 

30. Agreement in Case. ... a ....... . 

31. Declension ^ . ^. ....... . 

32. Classification of Predicates. ..... 

33. Order of Parsing the Noun 

34. Recapitulation of Rules 

35. Order of Analyzing Propositions. 

36. Classification of Pronouns 

37. Personal Pronouns 

38. Conjunctive Pronouns 

39. Conjunctive Pronouns of one case. 

40. Conjunctive Pronouns oftwo cases. 

41. Conjunctive Adjective Pronouns » 



31 



*£ 



35 
35 
36 

40 
41 

44 
47 

48 
54 
56 
58 
61 
61] 54. 
62 1 55. 
63 56. 
63157. 
65,58. 
65j59. 
72 '60. 
76 61. 



Particular Remarks on the use or 
which, what, and their com- 
pounds 77 

Interrogative Pronouns 79 

General View, and Order of Pars- 
ing Pronouns ... g& 

Fragmentary Propositions — El- 
lipsis „„ % 82 

Classification of Compound Sen- 
tences 83 

Verbs 89 

Auxiliary and Principal Verbs ... 96 

General Remarks 96 

Variations 97 

Mode. .^... .a.*. 97 

Indicative Mode 98 

Potential Mode 98 

Imperative Mode. 103 

Subjunctive Mode 105 

Infinitive Mode 106 

Participial Mode. . . . , 110 

Tenee ..,, ^... 120 

Tenses of the Indicative Mode . . . 120 
Tenses of the Potential Mode. . . . 128 
Tense ot'tbe Imperative Mode,,,, Ui^ 



Vlll 



INDEX. 



SECTION. SUBJECT. PAGE. 

62. Teases of the Subjunctive Mode. 134 

63. Tenses of the Infinitive Mode. ... 137 

64. Tenses of the Participial Mode.. 138 

65. Progressive Form of the Passive 

Voice 140 

66. General Remarks on the Tenses . 140 

67. Remarks on the Auxiliaries 144 

68. Formation of the Different Persons. 146 

69. Use of the Different Roots of the 

Verb in the Formation of the 

various Modes and Tenses 147 

70 Remarks on the Passive Voice. . . 147 

71. Conjugation of the Irregular Verb 

am or BE 148 

72. Conjugation of the Regular Verb 

Love, in the active voice 151 

/3. Conjugation of the Irrregular 
Verb Read, hi the progressive 
form 154 



SECTION. SUBJECT. PAGE. 

74. Conjugation of the Regular Verb 

Love, in the passive voice 157 

75. Conjugation of the Regular Verb 

Instruct, in the progressive 
form, passive voice 159 

76. Substantive Verbs, Phrases, and 

Propositions. 161 

77. It, representing a Substantive Verb 169 

78. Classification of Adjectives 170 

79. Adjectives varied by Comparison. 171 

80. Order of parsing Adjectives 175 

81. Adjective Pronouns. 178 

82. Adverbs 193 

83. Prepositions 197 

84. Omission of the Preposition 200 

85. Interjections 202 

86. Conjunctions. 204 

87. Words, and their < origin 208 

88. Capital Letters 214 



part ill. 



R9 


Syntax 


9,15 




90. 


General View of Propositions. . . 


216 




91. 


Sentences and Clauses 


223 


112. 


92. 


Symbols of Punctuation and their 


» 


113. 




Use 


225 


114 


93. 


Syntactical Punctuation-comma, 


115. 




semicolon, colon, period, dash, 








stars, section, paragraph 


228 


116. 


*H 




243 
243 
244 
246 


117 


P5 




118 


96 


Vowels 




97. 


Consonants 


119. 


98. 


Classification of Consonants. . «... 


247 




99. 


Position of the Organs, assumed 




120. 




in the articulation of the Con- 




121. 




sonants 


249 


122. 


100. 


Analyzing Orthography 


253 




101 


Accent 


254 
255 


123 


10'? 






103. 


Rhetorical Delivery 


255 




104 


Pauses 


259 
260 
260 


1°'1 


105 






106. 


Interrogative Propositions 


125. 


107. 


Rules for the use of the Interro 




126. 




gation Point 


263 


127 


108. 


Exclamation Point . 


264 


128 


109. 


Rules for the use of the Exclama 




129. 




tion Point « 


266 

266 




110 


Figures of Grammar 




Ill- 


Figures of Syntax 


268 


130 



Rules of Syntax. 

Conjunctions — Rule 1 270 

Adverbs — Rule II 281 

Pre positions — Rule III 288 

Explanatory Substantive — Rule 

IV 289 

Subject of the Verb — Rule V. . . 293 
Agreement of the Verb— Rule VI. 296 
Substantive denoting Possession 

or Origin — Rule VII 299 

Agreement of Pronouns — Rule 

VIII 302 

Adjectives — Rule IX 308 

Case of the Recipient — Ride X. 311 
Case after the Preposition — Rule 

XI 313 

, Substantives Modifying Verbs r 
without a connecting Preposi- 
tion—Ride XI! 314 

. Nouns of Time, Space, &c. — 

Rule XIII 315 

. Absolute Case — Rule XIV 315 

. Infinitive Mode — Rule XV 315 

. Participial Mode— Rule XVI... 317 

. Interjections — Rule XVII 319 

. The Elements of a Perfect Sen- 
tence — perspicuity, unity, 

strength, and harmony 320 

l. Figures ^of Rhetoric 323 



PART IV. 



13L Prosody 326 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



PART I. 



§1. LANGUAGE. 

Definition 1. — Language, in a general sense, is any 
means of expressing the thoughts suggested by the de- 
sires, the emotions, the passions, the reason. 

Remark 1. — Thoughts may be expressed by words, by gestures, or 
by indications of the countenance. 

Specification. — Language, made up of words, with 
which we shall primarily have to do in this work, is either 
written or spoken, according as we wish to address our 
thoughts to the minds of others through the medium of 
the ear or the eye. 

Remark 2. — We learn spoken language chiefly from imitation, and 
we use it correctly or incorrectly according as those with whom we 
intimately associate use correct or incorrect language. 

Remark 3. — We learn written language by a careful and crit- 
ical examination of the best authors, and by frequent exercise in 
writing out our own thoughts in conformity with established prin- 
ciples. 

Definition 2.— A spoken word is either an elementary 
sound, or a combination of elementary sounds. 

Definition 3. — A written word is either the repre« 
sentative of an elementary sound, or the representative 
of a combination of elementary sounds. 

Note. — For a full illustration of these last two definitions, the studentis referred 
to the Author's M Outlines of Phonographic Analysis," 

1 



& ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§2. PROPOSITIONS. 

Definition 1. — A proposition is a collection of wcrcfe 
expressing a complete thought. 

EXAMPLES. 
(Ships sail. James reads the Scriptures. 

Good children obey their parents. Melissa practices music. 
Judas betrayed Christ. The Romans were conquered 

Jane studies French. by Hannibal. 

The people have assembled. 

Specification. — Every proposition is composed of two 
parts, the subject and the predicate. 

Definition 2. — The subject is that of which an affirm- 
ation is made. 

Definition 3. — The predicate is that which is affirmed 
of the subject. 

examples. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

Legislators | make laws. All men | are created equal. 

The cars | move rapidly. Contentment is a Christian 
Time | flies swiftly. virtue. 

Smoke | ascends. Deception should always be 
Bees | collect honey. condemned. 

Birds | build nests. The kisses of an enemy are 
Bogs | bark furiously. deceitful. 

Hannah | reads well. Virtue will be rewarded. 

The men | labor faithfully. Damp air is unhealthy. 

Columbus | discovered America. Still waters are usually deep- 
Good men | receive praise. est. 

Wicked men | are a reproach to Vice produces misery. 

humanity. We must learn meekness. 

The earth | is full of the goodness Life is short. 

of God. Vice is eensurable. 

EXERCISES. 
Oral. — Mention the subject and predicate of each of the abov 
examples, thus : 

Legislators make laws is a proposition, because it is a collection of 
words expressing a complete thought. 

Legislators is the subject, because it is that of which an affirmation 
8 made. 
Tffake laws is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed of 



SENTENCES. 8 

§3. SENTENCES. 

Definition 1. — A sentence is a collection of words, 
composed of a single proposition, or of several propo- 
sitions, followed by a full pause. 

Specification. — -Sentences are divided into two classes* 
simple &n&co?n2JOund. 

Definition 2. — A simple sentence is a single proposi- 
tion, followed by a full pause. 

examples. 

Disappointments derange vulgar minds. 

The spirit of revenge should never be exercised. 

The disasters of life should not sour our dispositions. 

Evil examples corrupt good manners. 

Injuries should be overcome by forgiveness. 

The wicked are overthrown. 

The righteous man regards the life of his beast, 

Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord. 

A wise son hears the counsels of his father. 

A tale-bearer reveals secrets. 

A hypocrite is a dangerous neighbor. 

The just shall be delivered. 

Hatred stirs up strife. 

Wise men lay up knowledge. 

The labor of the righteous tends to life. 

A false balance is an abomination to the Lord. 

Xhe fool despises his father's instructions. 

Oral. — Mention the subject and predicate in each of the above 
sentences, beginning with the fact that the sentence is simple, thus -s 

Disappointments derange vulgar minds is a simple sentence, be- 
cause it is a single proposition followed by a full pause. 

Disappointments is the subject, because it is that of which an affirm- 
ation is made. 

Derange vulgar minds is the predicate, because it is that whbb is 
aifirmed of the subject. 

Written and Oral. — Write a dozen -short sentences, and then 
mention the subject and predicate of each, as last directed. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Remark 1. — In writing sentences you must be careful to observe 
the three following 

rules: 

1. The first word in each sentence must begin with a capital 
letter. 

2. Every name of the Supreme Being, the names of individuals, 
places, mountains, seas, &c, must commence with a capital letter. 

3. A dot, called a period, must be placed at the close of every 
sentence. 

Remark 2. — In order to appreciate the thought expressed by any 
sentence, we must understand, first, the precise office performed by 
each word making up the sentence, and, second, the peculiarities 
of each word. 

We will first attend to an examination of the office performed by 
the words. 

EXAMPLES, 

1. Sarah writes well. 
Let us now see if we can get the meaning of this sentence, by 
examining the words separately. 

Sarah is the name of an individual. 
Writes tells what she does. 
Well tells how she does it. 

2. Good hoys study faithfully. 

Good tells the kind of boys. 

Bdys is the name of a collection of individuals. 

Study tells what they do. 

Faithfully tells how they do it. 

3. Merchants purchase goods. 

Merchants is the name of a class of individuals. 

Purchase tells what they do. 

Goods is a name applied to whatever they buy. 

EXERCISES. 

Orai,. —-State, first, the office performed by each word in each of 
the following sentences, and, second, the subject and predicate : 

Magistrates make laws. Kindness will secure friends. 

Francis Bacon wrote essays. Some men like whiskey. 
Moses presented the law. Uncertainty attends all advantages. 

Many nations practice idolatry. Repentance composes the mind. 
Luther loved truth. Confession unburdens the soul. 



NOUNS. 5 

Written and Oral. — 1. Write four short sentences; 2. State the 
office of each word ; and, 3. State the subject and predicate. 

Remark. — It will be perceived, that certain words forming sen- 
tences perform a similarity of office, and from this circumstance we 
can facilitate our examination of words by collecting them into 
classes. 

Specification. — They may all be arranged in eight 
classes. 



§4. NOUNS, 



Definition. — A noun is any word used as a name. 







EXAMPLES. 






James, 


truth, 


virtue, 


bush, 


knife, 


bone, 


city, 


paper, 


address, 


flax, 


heart, 


muscle, 


rock, 


town, 


tree, 


hoe, 


head, 


parent, 


London, 


wheat, 


mill, 


scythe, 


bassets, 


father, 


Vermont. 


blood, 


cow, 


vessel, 


feet, 


mother, 


boat, 


county, 


barn, 


copper, 


eyes, 


brother, 


France, 


house, 


corn, 


goodness, 
fence, 


car, 


sister, 


book, 


acre, 


justice, 


mouth, 


uncle, 


ear, 


arm, 



EXERCISES. 



Oral. — Each of the above nouns is the name of what ? State the 
fact as it is, thus t 

James is a noun, because it is the name of an individual. 
Bone is a noun, because it is the name of a kind of animal matter. 
City is a noun, because it is the name of any large corporate town. 
London is a noun, because it is the name of a city. 

Written and Oral. — 1. Write the name of the different articles 
of wearing apparel. 

2. Write the names of the different apartments of a dwelling-house. 

3. Write the names of the different articles of food. 

4. Write the names of the different tools used in doing the work 
on a farm. - 



m ENGLISH GHeAMM-Ain 

5. Write the names of the different articles used by the scho^ars^ 
In the school-room. 

6. Write the names of your most intimate friends. 

7. Write the names of the different passions and : emotions, so far 
as you know them. 

8. Write- the names of tke different trees, so far as you know 
them. 

9. Tell what each noun that you have thus written down is the 
the name of. 

Note. — The student should always be provided with a dictionary, nnd consult it 
m all cases when the meaning of a word in a lesson is not understood. 



§?. VERBS. 



Definition. — A verb is a word that signifies to We, or 
to do,, and describes the state or condition of a noun. 
It also expresses the notion of time absolute. 

EXAMPLKS. 



Boy 3 play. 
©attle feed. 
Lions roar. 
Farmers work. 
Kain falls. 
Wind blows. 
Bonaparte fled. 
Felix trembled. 
Daniel prophesied. 
Miriam danced. 



Water runs. 
Charles studies. 
Orrilla blushes. 
Peter smiled. 
Susanna wept. 
Horses walk. 
Rabbits jump. 
Iron rusts. 
Jubal sang. 
Joseph- spoke. 



Husbandmen plough. 
Stars glitter. 
Whales spout. 
Tides ebb. 
Trees wave. 
Duelists fight. 
Stephen suffered. 
Noah preached. 
Moses rejoiced.. 
Man sinned. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. State which word is the verb in each of the above 
©xamples, thus : 

Play is a verb, because it describes boys by telling what they do, 

2. Give the nouns as before directed. 

31 State the subject and predicate of each sentence. 



Written an'd Oral. — 1. Join some verb willi each of the follow- 
ing nouns, and then go through- with the sentences as last directed: 
Men, women, girls, stones,, mountains, wood,, children, boys, sailors, 
vices, tigers, animals, apes. 

2. Join some noun with each of the following verbs, and proceed 
as before : Rattle, speak, burns, heals, thrives, roam, fight, came, 
roar, blazes, freezes, parade, wander, laughed. 

Remark 1. — To be, means existing energy, or that power inherent 
in bodies causing them to be, for the time being, as they are. 

EXAMPLES. 

Men Hue. The children are in the garden.. The books lie on 
-the floor. 

Remark 2.— To do, means existing causitive energy, or that power 
inherent in bodies to produce changes ; or to accomplish something. 

EXAMPLES. 

The boys ran. The bird files. The dogs bark. The lamb ships- 

Remark 3. — Two, three, or even four verbs some times occur it* 
immediate succession, in order to express variations of time, and 
other circumstances indicated by the verb. These can not well be 
explained here, but will be attended to in their proper place. 

EXAMPLES. 

Nations have fallen. Princes must he educated!. 

Rome has perished. Bells have been ringing. 

Spring will come. Charles is esteemed. 

Happiness shall follow. Reproof shall be given. 

Scholars must labor. Minds may be cultivated. 

Parrots can talk. Alexander might have been d&* 
Seasons may alter. ceived. 

Caroline must have been mistaken. Jerusalem was taken* 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — State, first, the verb, and tell why it is a verb ; second, 
the noun, and why it is a noun ; and, third, the subject and predicate 
in each example of the last list. 

Remark 4. — Let it now be observed, that each of the sentences 
given as examples of the use of the verb, is made up of a noun and 
a verb only. 

Remark 5. — These are the essential elements of every sentence, 
and however many other words may enter into the composition of a 
simple sentence, they are all dependent, directly or indirectly, upon 
the noun as the principal word in the subject, or upon the verb as 
the principal word in the predicate. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



§6. PRONOUNS. 

Definition. — A pronoun is a word used instead of ^ 

noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

/write. It remains. 

Thou canst study. We object. 

He works. You are prepared. 

She learns. They have gone. 

The words, I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, and they, are each used 
instead of a noun, and are, therefore, called pronouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

They want me immediately. We can accept you. 

Our friends will accompany us. My books have come. 

We thank thee. It will relieve thy cares. 

His health has improved. Virtue brings its own reward. 

They require your attendance. We do not wish their protection. 

Her hopes were blasted. His intemperance has accom- 

We will aid him. plished his ruin. 

You can obtain them. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. State the pronouns in each of the foregoing examples, 
giving the reason why they are pronouns. 
2. The nouns, as before directed. 
3; The verbs. 
4. The subject and predicate of each sentence. 

Written and Oral. — Write twenty short sentences, each ono 
containing at least one pronoun ; and then go through with them 
as above directed. In writing observe the following 

rule: 

The pronoun /must always be written with a capital letter. 

Remark. — To prevent the frequent repetition of the expression, 
noun or pronoun, we shall use the term substantive as including both 
the noun and pronoun. 



ABJECTITES. 9 

A list of pronouns for present use. 

I, my or mine, me. He, his, him. 

We, our or ours, us. They, their or theirs, them. 

Thou, thy or thine, thee. She, her or hers. 

Ye, your or yours, you. It, its. 



§7. ADJECTIVES. 

Definition 1. — Adjectives are words used to modify 
nouns. 

Definition 2. — One word is said to modify another 
when it serves to limit, extend, or in any way describe 
the meaning of the other word. 

EXAMPLES. 

Good children. A small farm. 

French nation. Fifty large white-oak trees. 

This book. The American consul. 

Ten men. Those twenty well-trained English horses. 

A chair. No presents. 

Each man. Excellent morals. 

No property. « Every friend. 

Far-famed republic. Supreme bliss. 

EXERCISES, 

Oral. — State the adjectives in each of the foregoing examples, 
and give the reason, thus : 

Good is an adjective, because it modifies children by indicating 
their character. 

French is an adjective, because it modifies nation by indicating 
what nation is meant. 

This is an adjective, because it modifies book by indicating some 
particular book. 

Ten is an adjective, because it modifies men by indicating a defi 
nite number. 

A is an adjective, because it modifies chair by indicating somo 
chair, but no particular one. 



globe, 
bliss, 


air, 


God, 


place, 


virtue, 


flower, 


justice, 


thoughts, 


night, 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Each is an adjective, because it modifies man by indicating one at 
a time. 

No is an adjective, because it modifies property by indicating ab- 
sence of property. 

Far-famed is an adjective, because it modifies republic by indicat- 
ing its notoriety. 

Written and Oral. — 1. "Write one adjective or more before each 
of the following nouns : 

nation, sky, Creator, 

hill, mind, sleep, 

speculation, rale, apples, 

creatures, birds, animals, 

earth, fruit, work. 

2. Connect some noun with each of the adjectives in the following 
list: 

blue, white, infinite, the, fine, 

shady, stony, glorious. mild, smooth, 

happy, this, long, generous, soft, 

omnipotent, delicious, that, these, fair. 

3. Write twenty sentences, each containing at least one adjective, 
and tell, 1. what it modifies, 2. the verbs as before directed, 3. the 
nouns, 4. the subject and predicate. 

Remark. — The position of the adjective, in the examples thus far, 
has been immediately before the noun, and this is the most frequent 
construction, but not the only one, as the following examples will 
illustrate : 

Their parents are affectionate. The scholars are cheerful. 

Our friends are kind. She is melancholy. 

His form was fair. The nations had been peaceful. 

Virtue stands unharmed. The sounds were harmonious. 

They have become unhappy. His end was miserable. 

They are comfortable. The fruit will be delicious. 

Pompey seemed gloomy. The difficulties must be numer- 

The day was calm. ous. 

The children were idle. Our prospects are fair. 

I am sincere. They are cheerless. 

The statement will appear false. Your house is convenient. 

The scene is delightful. Favors should make us kind. 

The example is good. Kindness will render life happy. 

Our desires should be moderate. That unfortunate event rendered 

us sad. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Mention, in each of the above examples, 1. the adjective. 
2. the pronoun, 3. the verb, 4. the noun, 5. the subject and predicate 



ADVERBS. 11 

Written and Oral. — Write a dozen seutences ia imitation of the 
last given. 

ANALYZATION. 

Definition 3. — To analyze a proposition or sentence, 
is to state its subject and predicate, the class to which 
each word belongs, and the office it performs in the pro- 
position or sentence. 



§8. ADVERBS. 



Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify 

verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

I. EXAMPLES. 

We went can-ionsly. He searched every-where. 

They returned immediately. The Romans were totally defeated. 

Cautiously is an adverb, because it modifies went by stating how 
we went. 

Immediately is an adverb, because it modifies returned by stating 
when they returned. 

Every-where is an adverb, because it modifies searched by stating 
where he searched in general. 

Totally is an adverb, because it modifies were defeated by stating 
the extent of the defeat. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — State, 1. the adverb in each of the following sentences 1 , 
2. the adjective, 3. the pronoun, 4. the verb, 5. the noun, 6. the 
subject and predicate: 

They have already arrived, 

Tbpv noted wig'Oy. 



12 ENGLISli GRAMMAR* 

I will do it presently. 

The stages run daily. 

We seldom witness such a scene. 

The affairs have been managed economically. 

It should not be done again. 

They are sufficiently compensated. 

The Romans lived happily. 

You converse cheerfully. 

They were generally satisfied. 

The system works admirably. 

The whole train moved slowly. 

The question was decided unjustly. 

They often speak abruptly. 

He instantly demanded satisfaction. 

Howard twice visited the principal Italian towns. 

The facts were erroneously stated. 

The earth revolves rapidly. 

The rivulet glides gently. 

I have been treated kindly. 

Written and Oral. — Write ten sentences, each containing at least 
one adverb, and then analyze them. 

II. Adverbs indicating degree, or how much, are used 
to modify adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. 

They were extremely prodigal. 

You have produced a very great excitement. 

Some people are supremely deceitful. 

The charge is sufficiently absurd. 

Your location has much the best prospect. 

How false is such a heart ! 

He is abundantly able. 

She is a most excellent woman. 

He is entirely competent. 

It is generally favorable. 

She is excessively foolish. 

You are hardly competent. 

The event is barely possible. 

The lady is wonderfully affected. 

Her mother is nearly crazy. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral.— "Mention the adverb in each of the examples preceding, 
and then analyze each sentence. 

Written and Oral. — Write six sentences, each containing at least 
one adverb modifying an adjective, and then analyze. 



PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASES. 13 

III. Adverbs indicating degree modify other adverbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

They dressed very elegantly. 

He has acted most judiciously. 

The work was uncommonly well executed. 

We would not act so basely. 

I can do it much more advantageously. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Mention the adverb in each of the above examples, and 
then analyze each sentence. 

Written and Oral. — Write five sentences, each containing an 
adverb modifying an adverb, and then analyze each sentence* 



§9. PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASES. 

Definition 1. — A preposition is a word used to connect 
words, and show the relation they sustain to each other. 





EXAMPLE* 


I went to the house. 


I went past the house 


" " around " 


n 


" " through " " 


" " behind " 


it 


44 44 towards " 44 


■ " from " 


tt 


" 44 under 44 " 


" " into " 


it 


44 " upon " " 


* " out-of " 


n 


44 44 against " 44 


41 44 over '* 


tt 





Notice how the meaning changes by changing the preposition in 
the above example, and you will be enabled to appreciate the office 
of the preposition. 

Remark 1.— 'It will be seen, in this example, that the preposition, 
and the noun connected by it to the verb, taken together, modify 
the verb. Hence the phrase performs the office of an adverb. 

Definition 2. — A phrase is any collection of words 
less than a proposition* 
2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. — Any phrase modifying a substantive, performs the 
office of an adjective, and may be called an adjective phrase ; and 
any phrase modifying a verb, adjective, or an adverb, performs the 
office of an adverb, and may be called an adverbial phrase. 

Definition 3. — In analyzing propositions, a preposi- 
tion and substantive joined with it should be called a 
prepositive substantive modifier. 



EXAMPLES 

The man of wisdom is the man of years. 

Washington was a General of superior abilities. 

The favor of a friend should be reciprocated. 

The kindness of your letter encouraged me. 

The approbation of the public should not be the chief motive. 

He came from Albany, 

The passengers returned to New-York. 

The musicians delighted us with a concert. 

The earth revolves about the sun. 

The cattle stand about the barn. 

The eagle soars far above the earth. 

The character of Wilberforce was above suspicion. 

Some men live above their income. 

Tappan's work on the Will is above the comprehension of a child. 

The army of Xerxes marched across the Hellespont on a bridge 

of boats. 
An immense herd of buffalos were driven across the prairies. 
It shall return to you after many days. 
The Indian strolls wearily after his game. 
Children usually follow after their parents. 
I never saw work done in that maimer. 
Ca?sar immediately set out against Antony. 
Knox took decisive measures against the Queen. 
Some politicians of that day spoke against the war. 
The boat came violently against the wharf. 
All men act occasionally against their own interest. 
His lot was thrown amidst the enemies of humanity. 
The bee flits amidst the flowers 
He was among the first signers of that declaration. 
Mary was among the most accomplished women of her time. 
Cook sailed around the world. 
His enemies stood around him in amazement. 
The damsel went out about the third hour. 
The Almighty will laugh at our calamities. 
The travelers stopped at Paris. 
They moved forward at a rapid rate. 
The soldiers discharged their guns at random. 
The fleet stood athwart our course. 
All must appear before the Lord, 
Pride comes before poverty 



PREPOSITIONS AND PHRASES. * 15 

He is preferred before me. 

You will get behind your classes. 

There is something darker behind the curtain. 

A good man will never be behind in acts of charity. 

A scholar should not be behind his class. 

The teacher is behind his duty. 

The earth below him was covered with the richest verdure. 

Every station below this has been filled. 

Such language is beneath the dignity of a scholar. 

We may justly regard the boaster as beneath notice. 

They rode beside the King's chariot. 

There were twenty thousand men beside the royal guard. 

The cattle feed beside the road. 

There should be no strife between us. 

A great gulf is placed between them. 

Enmity between men should never exist. 

They were again driven between the decks. 

Virtue has a home beyond the skies. 

The expedition returned by the Sandwich Islands. 

Columbus, by the favor of Isabella, fitted out three small vessels. 

The rafts moved down the river. 

The ball has rolled down the hill. 

Who would not wish for a home among the shades of the forest? 

He asks only for life. 

Depart from me. 

Deliver us from the hope of the unjust. 

The facts were stated in sincerity. 

Keep in your own place. 

Go into all the world. 

Search into the hidden mysteries of science. 

Push off the boat. 

Desolation appeared on all sides. 

The old gentleman puts on his glasses. 

The work is out-of joint. 

He has gone out-of his way. 

He went over the river. 

Flocks of pigeons flew over the country. 

They ran past us. 

It is now past the hour of appointment. 

We pass around the circle. 

He has got round us by this manoeuvre. 

All joy has passed from me since that period. 

We have passed through your country. 

You can now go through with your lesson. 

It penetrates throughout the entire union. 

They will not return till evening. 

The letter has been sent to the office. 

The coruscations moved up towards the zenith. 

Washington had placed him under guard. 

We were all engaged until this moment. 

They advanced gradually up the hill. 

The alternative has been forced upon us. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He returned with his brethren. 

Fifty thousand men lay within the space of a league. 

We were left without the means of protection. 

We have looked back to the origin of the difficulty. 

Man marks the earth with ruin. 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over the ocean. 

His control stops with the shore. 

He sinks into the depths with a sullen groan. 

She holds her course along the lapse of time among the civilized 
nations of the earth. 

This Government was founded upon the principles of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

She seemed a creature fresh from the hand of God. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Analyze each of the above examples, thus: 

The man of wisdom is the man of years, is a simple sentence, be- 
cause ($ 3. Def. 2.) 

The man of wisdom is the subject, because ($2. Def. 2.) 

Is the man of years is the predicate, because (§2. Def. 3.) 

The is an adjective, and modifies man, indicating a particular man. 

Man is a noun, because it is the name of a class of individuals. 

Of wisdom is a prepositive substantive modifier, because it modi- 
fies man by indicating the kind of man. 

Is is a verb, because (§5. Def.) 

The is an adjective, because (§ 7. Def.) 

Man is a noun, because (§4. Def.) 

Of years is a prepositive substantive modifier, because (Def. 3.) 

Written and Oral. — Write twenty sentences, each containing 
the prepositive substantive modifier, and then analyze them. 



§10. PUNCTUATION. 

Definition. — Punctuation, in a restricted sense, is sep- 
arating words by certain marks, so as better to show their 
grammatical relations. 

Remark 1. — The dot [.] called a period, has already been noticed, 
and other marks will be pointed out as their use in composition ren- 
ders them necessary. 



rUACTUATIONT. 17 

Remark 2. — The following are some of the rules for the use of the 
mark called a comma [,] in the construction of simple sentences: 

Rule 1. — An adjective, separated from the substantive which it 
modifies, unless that separation is effected by an intervening verb, 
or by an intervening adjective, should, with its modifiers, be set 
off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Ashamed of poverty, I could not endure the reproaches of former 

associates. 
I played the game out, forgetful of my solemn vows. 
Weak with the fatigues of a long journey, I confined myself tc* 

my room. 

Rule 2. — An adverb, separated from the word that it modifies, or 
interrupting the close dependence of words upon each other, should 
be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Surely, you are in Jest. 

Verily, I say unto you. 

I can, never, admit such a doctrine. 

He, certainly, will not oppose us. 

You have spoken, very approvingly, of my adventures. 

He, positively, asserts it. 

Rule 3. — A prepositive substantive modifier, separated from the 
word that it modifies, or interrupting the close dependence of words 
upon each other, should be set off* by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

In hope of better success in business, I engaged, again, in mer- 
chandize. 

By his integrity, he has gained numerous friends. 

A few of our company, in expectation of relief, have gone over to 
the other side of the island. 

Rule 4. — If the words, making up the subject of a proposition, 
have a close dependence upon each other, and the subject at the 
same time is quite lengthy, a comma should be placed before the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

The laws of all the nations of the earth, should be based upon 

the moral law. 
The internal improvements of every country, should be wisely 

managed for the best good of all. 



S8 ENGLISH GRAM-MAE, 



111. SUBJECT OP THE VERB, &c 

Deflation 1. — The subject of the verb is that parties 
lar word in a proposition, that the verb describes*. 

Remark. — Let the scholar carefully distinguish between the sub- 
ject of the verb, and the subject of the proposition. 

The subject of the proposition is the subject of a verb, either alone 
or variously modified ; whereas the subject of the verb is a particular 
word, as stated- in the definition. 

The predicate of a proposition is also the verb alone or variously 
modified. Hence — 

Specification 1. — The subject and predicate of a pro- 
position may each be incomplex or complex. 

Definition 2. — The incomplex subject is the subject of 
the verb unmodified. 

EXAMPLES. 

Angels rejoice. Thieves' steal. Laws differ. 

Chains clank. Smoke ascends. Herds graze. 

Birds sing. Washington retired. Dogs growl. 

Day dawns. Vegetables decay. Trees grow. 

Oral Exercises. — Go through with the examples in the list, ac- 
cording to the last directions. 

Definition 3. — A complex subject is a subject of dis- 
course^ having other words modifying its meaning. 

EXAMPLES. 

Industrious habits will secure competence. 

The darkest time of night is just before day. 

Wicked rulers occasion sadness. 

The house of God should be regarded with respect 

A brother's kindness fills the heart with pleasure. 

The poisoned cup is pressed to many a lip. 

The character of Jesus Christ presents the only perfect model of 

character. 
No minstrel raptures swell for such a man. 
Our Nation's independence was won at the expense of much blood. 

Oral Exercises. — State, 1. the subject and predicate, 2. the sub- 
ject of the verb, 3. its modifiers, in each of the above sentences. 



SUBJECT Ol THE VERB, ETC\ W- 

Definition k — An wcomplex* predicate is tha verb used 
alone. 

EXAMPLES.^ 

Jesus ?r^. Children sport. The carriage s/07 

Angels rejoiced. Thepeople assembled. The wind shift eo 

The sun rtWs. The child weeps. The bells ring. 

The earth trembled. Horses work. Death alarms. 

Definition 5. — A complex predicate is a verb joined 
by other words used to modify it*» 

EXAMPLES. 

Exercise strengthens the constitution. 

H&rd labor occasion-ed a dangerous idltiess* 

Large bodies move slowly. 

Superior merit deserves superior praise. 

Oar associates love sport. 

Virtue will render youth honorable. 

Weak minds love flattery. 

Smiles beget smiles. 

Levity prod.uces imbeciUtg*. 

Hope alleviates sorrow. 

Oral Exercises. — Mention, 1. the subject and the predicate, 2. 
the verb and its modifiers, 3. the subject of the verb audits modifiers, 
in each of the foregoing sentences. 

Definition 6. — When a nonn or pronoun explains,, 
extends, or limits the meaning of another word, it is 
called a substantive modifier. 

In analyzing a proposition, state, 1. the proposition, 2. the subject, 
3. the predicate, 4. whether the subject is incomplex or complex, 5. 
whether the predicate is incomp'ex or complex, 6. if the subject is 
complex, state the subject of the verb and its modifiers. 

Remark. — The modifiers already introduced are, 1» adjective, 2. 
adverbial, 3. substantive, 4. prepositive substantive, 

EXERCISES. 

1. Exercise strengthens the constitution, is a simple sentence, because 
it is a single proposition followed by a full pause. 

Exercise is the subject, because it is that of which an affinn&tioa 
is made. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Strengthens the constitution is the predicate, because it is that 
which is affirmed of the subject. 

Incomplex subject, because the subject of the verb is unmodified; 
and complex predicate, because the verb is joined by other words 
used to modify it. 

Strengthens is the verb, because it tells what is done. 

Constitution is a noun, and modifies strengthens, because it limits 
the affirmation to that particular effect. 

The is an adjective, and modifies constitution, because it points out 
the particular thing mentioned. 

2. Hard labor occasioned a dangerous illness, is a simple sentence,, 
Because 

Hard labor is the subject, because 

Occasioned a dangerous illness is the predicate, because' 

Complex subject and complex predicate. 

Labor is the subject of the verb. 

Hard is an adjective and modifies labor. 

Occasioned is the verb. 

Illness is a noun and modifies occasioned. 

Dangerous and a are adjectives modifying illness-. 



f 12. RECAPITULATION. 

The student has now been presented with six classes of words i 
nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. 

These are the elements of every proposition, or simple sentence? 
although every propositon or simple sentence does not, necessarily, 
include all of these classes. 

A few simple sentences will now be given, each of which shall 
contain, at least, one word embraced in each class. 

These the student will analyze, noting particularly the dependence 
of one word upon another. 

Contentment will always make us easy, under every disquietude 

of life. 
A generous man does not act for his own advancement. 
Every society is justly held responsible for the result of its acts. 
The wealth of New-Bedford is mostly derived from its commercial 

interests. 



CONJUNCTIONS AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 21 

The inhabitants of New-England have uniformly been distinguished 

for their great industry. 
The merciful man will never be unkind to his beast. 
No person has ever been more successful in teaching than she has. 
All the blessings we receive in life flow directly from the hand 

of God. 
Suffering humanity vainly struggles for freedom. 
No sane man will willfully reject the counsels of his God. 



§ 13. CONJUNCTIONS AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



Remark. — Propositions, frequently, have a dependence upon each 
other, and are connected so as to express that dependence. 

Definition 1. — Conjunctions are words used to connect 
propositions, and to abbreviate language. 

Definition 2. — A compound sentence is two or more 
connected propositions, followed by a full pause. 

EXAMPLES. 

Winter set in, and hostilities were suspended. 

I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 

She has been disappointed, and now no one pities her. 

She uttered few words, and they were all expressive of some in- 
ward grief. 

The force of tender passions was great over her, hut the force 
of her mind was still superior. 

We admire his eloquence, but we deprecate his sentiments. 

The prisoner ran, but the sheriff soon caught him. 

We can not accompany you, for we are engaged in urgent busi- 
ness. 

Mary was ardent in all her attachments, because she formed them 
from judgment. 

No one ever beheld her without admiration, nor will any one ever 
read her history without sorrow. 

If Almanzo had educated his sons in the principles of economy, 
they would not so soon have squandered his immense fortune. 

If we would secure the esteem of the good, we must show to the 
world a benevolent heart. 

Some have imagined that vastness of extent is the foundation of all 
sublimity. 

We may observe that great power always raises sublime ideas* 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We should learn the objects of life in youth, or we shall accomplish 

very little of the business of life. 
You may never become an eminent jurist, nor may I attain wealth, 

but we may both participate largely in the blessings of existence. 
Gold can not buy me, neither can threats intimidate me. 
We wished for your aid, though we did not expect it. 
You will secure the approval of a good conscience, although you 

may not gain reputation. 
I am not prepared for defense, yet I anticipate a glorious victory, 

because I am convinced of the power of truth. 
Ye shall all likewise perish, unless ye repent. 
The Bible urges its claims upon your attention, notwithstanding 

you heed them not. 
Though accused, yet I am not condemned; and if I should be 

condemned, yet still I am not guilty. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze each of the foregoing compound sentences. 

State, 1. the propositions composing the compound, 2. the con- 
nective, 3. analyze each proposition in accordance with the plan pre- 
sented in §11, observing that you are to use the term proposition 
where you used it there. 

* 
RULE OF PUNCTUATION. 

The complete propositions forming a compound sentence, and 
closely connected to each other, by conjunctions, must be separated 
by a comma. 

3. Conjunctions are used to abbreviate language. 

EXAMPLE. 

The boy reads and writes. 
In this compound sentence, observe, there is a simple subject and 
compound predicate. 



§14. CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS. 

Specification. — Propositions, for the sake of conven- 
ience in analyzing, are divided into five classes : Declara- 
tive, Imperative, Interrogative, Exclamatory, and Hypo- 
thetical* 



CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS. 23 

Definition 1. — A declarative proposition is one in 
which an express declaration is made. 

Note.— All the examples, thus far presented, have been of this kind 

Definition 2. — An imperative proposition is one used 
in commanding or entreating. 

EXAMPLES. 

Go home. Stop that noise. 

Study your lesson. Prepare for defense. 

Improve your time. Go. 

Stand still. Weep not for me. 

Hear me. Do not interrupt us* 

Rise early. Ring the bell. 

Take care of your health. Assist me. 

Grant me one favor. Proceed. 

Stop. 

Remark 1. — It will be noticed, that in all these examples there is 
no subject expressed j and this is usual in the construction of impera- 
tive propositions, based upon a principle to which we shall have 
frequent occasion to refer. The principle is, that any word or 
words may be omitted, when the meaning will not be impaired or 
obscured by such omission. 

In all the examples above, the subject of discourse is some individual 
present, who recognizes himself addressed ; hence it is sufficient to 
express in language the predicate, since the terms of the predicate 
will imply the subject. In analyzing such sentences, state the fact, 
as it is, by saying that the subject is suppressed, and then state the 
predicate. 

Definition 3. — An interrogative proposition is a pro- 
positon embracing a question. 

EXAMPLES. 

Can we go ? 

How far are we from Utica ? 

Shall all our hopes be vain 1 

Did the world ever see such base ingratitude ? 

Shall we gain strength by irresolution ? 

Will not the rich earth yield her accustomed increase ? 

Must we not respect others' rights ? 

Who are they ? 

Do you know me ? 

In writing interrogative propositions, observe the following 
RULE OF punctuation: 

The mark [?] called an interrogation point, must be placed at the 
close of every direct question. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 4. — Propositions of either of the three 
kinds mentioned, uttered with great emotion, are called 
exclamatory. 

EXAMPLES. 

There stands the mighty Mansfield ! 

Our brethren are already in the field ! 

He is fallen ! 

The war is actually begun ! 

Are such things possible! 

Is that little insignificant creature the cause of all this tumult ! 

Sell my country's independence to France \ 

Hide your diminutive heads ! 

In writing exclamatory propositions, observe the following 

RULE of punctuation: 

The mark [!] called a note of exclamation, must be placed at the 
close of every exclamatory proposition or sentence. 

Definition 5. — A hypothetical proposition is such as 
expresses a hypothesis or supposition. 

Remark. — A hypothetical, unconnected with any other proposition, 
can never form a sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 



If we do the work, . Lest he may be offended, ■ 

Though he slay me, -. Unless you comply, 



§15. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 



Specification. — Sentences, whether simple or com- 
pound, are of four kinds : Declarative, Imperative, Inter* 
rogatory, and Exclamatory. 

Remark 1.— 'The definition of these terms, when applied to sen- 
tences, is the same as when applied to propositions. 



INTERJECTIONS AGENT AND RECIPIENT. 25 

EXAMPLES. 

The disappointed General will leave Lis country .- 

He will abandon the State, and flee to Europe. 

Be of good comfort. 

Go, search for the young child, and then bring me word again. 

Eat and be satisfied. 

Will he show us any good ? 

Will you come to our aid, and help us out of this difficulty ? 

Adams is dying ! 

The mighty has fallen, and the good has left a nation in mourning ! 

Though he die, yet shall he live. 

Though he attack and rob me, yet will I forgive and bless him. 



§16. INTERJECTIONS. 

Definition. — An interjection is a word used merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 

EXAMPLES. 

O wretched man that I am f 
Oh Absalom, my son, my son ! 
Oh solitude, where are thy charms ? 
How far, O Cataline, wilt thou abuse our patience ? 
Strange, ah, strange it is, that man is so corrupted. 
Hail! horrors, hail! 
Alas, said I, man was made in vain ! 
Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumined, and by taste refined ? 
Oh, pshaw ! should not we aspire to higher objects f 



§17. AGENT AND RECIPIENT. 

INTRANSITIVE AND TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

Definition 1. — An agent is the person or thing that 
produces an effect. 

Definition 2. — A recipient is any person or thing that 
receives the effect produced by the as:,ent. 
3 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Specification. — Verbs are of two kinds, intransitive 
and transitive. 

Definition 3. — An intransitive verb expresses an 
affirmation, limited to the agent, and not acting upon a 
recipient. 

EXAMPLES. 

The man walks. We looked for a path. 

Birds fly. He lives within his income. 

Horses run. His father resides at Rome. 

The girls weep. We traveled through France. 

You laugh. I will stay. 

We all rejoice. We shall stop. 

Some were present. Thy friend has come. 

The horse arrived. Fretful men often scold. 

You must go. Your enemy is dead. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Mention, 1. the agent in each of the above examples, and 
also the effect produced, 2. why the verb is intransitive, 3. analyze 
each sentence. 

The first part thus : Man is an agent, because he is the person 
that produces an effect expressed by the verb walks. 

Walks does not represent the agent as acting upon a recipient; 
therefore, walks is an intransitive verb. 

Birds are agents, because they are the things that produce the 
effect expressed by the verb fly. 

Fly does not represent the agent as acting upon a recipient ; there- 
fore, fly is an intransitive verb. 

Definition 4. — A transitive verb expresses an affirma- 
tion, not limited to the agent, but acting directly upon a 
recipient. 

EXAMPLES. 

Charles struck John. 

We will leave him. 

George has done the business. 

Attention may correct some errors. 

I saw my friend. 

You must finish your task. 

They can not serve us. 

He supports his mother. 

Adversity improves most people. 



ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 27 

You have often advised as. 

I have transgressed no law. 

We use our own books. 

Hope seldom satisfies us. 

The delusions of hope entice the fickle-minded. 

Kind words allay passion. 

The young should study simplicity of manners. 

We all have our prepossessions. 

Money may corrupt a virtuous heart. 

Years have not effaced the memory of that event. 

Some men have little judgment. 

He has served us faithfully. 

I will submit the question. 

1 will write a letter immediately. 

They deserve praise. 

I entertain the highest opinion of his integrity. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Mention, 1. the agent, the verb, and recipient, in each of 
the above examples, 2. analyze each sentence. 

First part thus : Charles is the agent, because he is the person 
that produces the effect indicated by the verb struck. 

Struck represents the agent as acting directly upon the recipient, 
John ; therefore, struck is a transitive verb. 

John is the recipient, because he is the person who receives the 
■effect produced by the agent, Charles. 

Written and Oral. — Write ten simple sentences, each containing 
a transitive verb, and then analyze them. 



§18. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE, 

Specification. — Transitive verbs have two forms fbr 
expressing precisely the same thought — one called the 
active voice, and the other the passive voice. 

Definition 1. — A transitive verb of the active voice, is 
a form of the verb used to describe the agent, and is 
followed by the recipient. 

Rkmark.— All the examples of the transitive verb thus far given, 
aj*o of the active voice. 



^8 ENGLISH 6RAMMAR. 

Definition 2. — A transitive verb of the passive voice, 
is a form of the verb used to describe the recipient, and 
is followed by the agent, connected to the verb by the 
preposition by. 

Remark. — : The change from the active to the passive form is effect- 
ed by the use of what is called an auxiliary verb, denoting merely 
a state of existence. 

In the following examples, if the verb in the active voice ends in 
e, annex d; if it ends in any other letter, annex ed, and then prefix 
is or are, according as the subject denotes one^ or more than one. 
This will give you the passive form. 

In changing from the passive to the active, reverse the operation, 

EXAMPLES. 

Active. C He studies his lesson. 
Passive. \ His lesson is studied by him. 

( We perceive them. 

\ They are perceived by us. 

J He interests me. 

I I am interested by him. 

SThey commend the message. 
The message is commended by them. 
<j She improves her time. 
.4 Her time is improved by her. 
£ He assists me. 
\ I am assisted by him. 
A Our hopes flatter us. 
\ We are flattered by our hopes. 
k They deceive me. 
I I am deceived by them. 

Oral Exercises. — Let the scholar change the following sentences, 
according to the foregoing principles, and then analyze them : 

Christianity abolishes idolatry. 
Misers accumulate wealth. 
Heaven admires innocence. 
Overseers aggravate servants. 
Rome is alarmed by Caesar. 
Interest is allowed by debtors. 
Paul answers Festus. 
God approbates truth. 
Philosophers argue questions. 
Taxes are assessed by government* 
Students attend school. 



EXPLANATORY .SUBSTANTIVE. 29 

Individuals are assimilated by association. 

God awards justice. 

Bread is baked by bakers. 

Some metals are attracted by magnetism. 

Colors are blended by painters. 

Worlds are created by Jehovah. 

Truth is credited by reason. 

Ignorance delitigates children. 

Conquerors demolish cities. 

Punishment is deserved by transgressors. 

Fools despise reproof. 

Justice terminates conflict. 

Knowledge diminishes crime. 

Culprits dread punishment. 

Metals are fused by caloric. 

Temples are constructed by mechanics. 

Men build cities. 

Children love play. 

Neighbors are united by charity. 

Enemies are subdued by kindness. 

Wagons are drawn by horses. 

Garments are made by tailors. 

Potatoes are planted by farmers. 

Medicine is administered by physicians. 

Causes imply effects. 

Brutes possess instinct. 



§19. EXPLANATORY SUBSTANTIVE. 



A substantive denoting the same person or thing as 
another substantive, may be added to the latter for the 
sake of explaining it. By this means a substantive is 
made to perform the office of an adjective. 

EXAMPLES. 

Albany, the capital of the State of New- York, is situated on the 

Hudson river. 
Mr. Hale, the Senator from New -Hampshire, has much political 

sagacity. 
Alfred, the first King of England, was a wise prince. 
Mary, Queen of Scotland, was "very unjustly treated by Elizabeth. 

Queen of England. 



ENGLISH: GRAMMAR,. 

Washington, the first President of the United Slates, was a mao- 

of superior qualities. 
Adams^'the old man eloquent," was a very plain, unassuming 

person. 
Milton, the poet, was a man of a strong and comprehensive mind. 
America, the home of the oppressed, and rest of the weary, must 

fee redeemed. 

RULE OF PUNCTUATION. 

When an explanatory substantive has several modifiers-, it must, 
with, its modifiers, be set off by a comma. 



1.2 0. INDEPENDENT NOUNS. 

When we address an individual whose attention is al- 
ready directed to us, we seldom speak his name; but 
when we wish to get his attention, we speak his name, 
and leave it without any connection with what we have 
to say ; hence, nouns used in a call to attention are inde- 
pendent. 

EXAMPL E S . 

Mary, come here. 
Bo_ys, study your lessons* 
Wand- me a- book, Charles. 
■ I am happy, King Agrippa, to answer for myself.' 
Permit me, Mr. Chairman, to call your attention to the resolution 

before the House. 
Mr. President, upon the decision of this body, rest many and im- 

poriant consequences. 
William, can you silence that noise ? 

Let it be noticed, that Mary, boys, Charles, &c, are all independent 
of the rest of the sentence, since they are mere calls to attention. 

EXERCISE. 
Write six sentences, preceded or followed by a noun used inde- 
pendent. 

Observe the following 

RULE OF punctuation: 

A uoun used independent of a proposition, must, with its modifiers, 
be set off by a comma. 



PART II. 



Specification. — English Grammar is usually divided 
into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Frosody. 

Orthography will not be treated of in this work. 

Definition. — Etymology treats of the derivation and 
various modifications of words* 

Remark.— The derivation of words, is well treated of in an analysis 
of words given to the public by Salem Town, A. M. This work 
of Mr. T., with some others of acknowledged merit, has long been 
extensively used. 

This work will, therefore, treat chiefly of the modifications of the 
eight classes of words mentioned in part first. 

In doing this most successfully, it will be necessary to include 
much that properly belongs to syntax and prosody. 



§21. DIVISIONS OF NOUNS. 



Specification. — There are four kinds of nouns : proper > 
common, abstract, and collective. 

Definition 1. — A proper noun is the name applied only 
to one individual person or thing. 

EXAMPLES. 

George, New-York, Rome, Hudson, 

London, Vermont, Webster, Po, 

Paris. Rochester, Alexander, Delaware, 

Albany, Connecticut, Vespasian, Mississippi. 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Give the reason why each of the above nouns is proper; 
thus : George is a proper noun, because it is the name of an indi- 
vidual. London is a proper noun, because it is the name of a city. 

Written and Oral. — Write a dozen proper nouns, and give the 
reason, 

Definition 2. — A common noun is a name applied to 
a class. 







EXAMPLES. 






horse, 


shop, 


lake, 


%, 


pen, 


man, 


day, 


ship, 


hen, 


t>«ggy 3 


dog, 


night, 


valley, 


kettle, 


eye, 


cat, 


year, 


mountain, 


wagon, 


tooth, 


house, 


month, 


steam, 


knile, 


sheep, 


fence, 


river, 


flour, 


fork, 


apple, 


chair, 


meadow, 


grain, 


table, 


peach, 


stove, 


oven, 


wheat, 


inkstand, 


plum, 


book, 


sea, 


oats, 


cart, 


spoon. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Give the reason why each one of the above nouns is a 

common noun ; thus : Horse is a common noun, because it is a name 

applied to a class. 

Note. — Be sure that you comprehend the distinction between the proper and 
common nouns. Take an illustration. Every man is a man, but every man is not 
Webster. Why is Webster not a common noun? Why is man not a proper 
noun? 

Written and Obal. — Write ten common nouns, and give the 
reason. 

Definition 3. — An abstract noun is a name indicating 
quality or character. 

EXAMPLES. 



hope, 
fear, 



virtue, 



duty, 
elegance, 



goodness, 
ability, 



truth, 
nobleness. 



Remark 1. — We may say of a man, that he is good, kind, wise, 
generous, noble, able, distinguished, &c. The words good, kind, 
wise, generous, noble, able, distinguished, &c, are adjectives indi- 
cating quality ; if we give names to these qualities, they are abstract 
nouns, signifying a name apart from the substance. 



DIVISIONS OP NOUNS. &3 

EXAMPLE8. 

good, goodness; kind, kindness; 

generous, generousness ; noble, nobleness; 

able, ability ; disinterested, disinterestedness. 

Remark 2. — A very large class of adjectives may be changed into 
abstract nouns by the termination of ness or ity* 

. EXAMPLES. 

Adj. great, dark, ripe, happy, severe, 

Noun, greatness, darkness, ripeness, happiness, severity 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Change the following adjectives into abstract nouns : 

bright, faithful, censurable, valuable, small, 

black, delightful, agreeable, filthy, great. 

Definition 4. — A collective noun is a name indicating 
a multitude. 

EXAMPLES. 



army, 
navy, 



assembly, 
senate, 



committee, community, 

congregation, society. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Give the reason why each of the above nouns is a col- 
lective noun, 2. point out to which class of nouns each one in the 
following list belongs : • 



Providence, Andover, 

reproof, mind, 

Nantucket, flock, 

benevolence, joke, 

people, beauty, 

pigeon, goodness, 

brother, comrade, 

Newark, truth, 

wickedness, garden, 

heart, home, 



grief, _ 

Dansville, 

needle, 

pin, 

dress, 

multitude, Po, 

Boston, 

school, 

person, * 

ability, 



error, 


precept, 


life, 


misconduct, 


troop, 


love, 


Steuben, 


council, 


law, 


vice, 


Po, 


lilly, 


vanity, 


sorrow, 


hand, 


frailty, 


animal, 


education, 


belief, 


morality. 



Remark 1.— A proper noun, used to indicate a class, becomes a 
common noun. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

Your Hancocks, your Jeffersons, your Henrys, where are thfey ? 
You must employ your time more diligently, or you will never be- 
come a Washington. 
Morse is the Franklin of the age. 

Some village Hampden, 

Some mute, inglorious Milton, here may rest. 
Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. 
A few Americans were present. 

Remark 2. — A common name may become proper, when designa- 
tive of a particular place or event. 

EXAMPLES. 

The Deluge destroyed the world. 

The Common has been fenced in. 

The Park has been beautified. 

The Strand was covered with the wreck. 

Remark 3. — An inanimate object, or an independent noun, may be 
used as if it had life, and may then become a proper noun. (§ 20.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom reared ! 
Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restored. 
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much. 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 
But Knowledge, to their eyes, her ample page 

did ne'er unroll. 

Ambition may not mock their useful toil. 
And Melancholy marked him for her own. 
how Death had balked 



The fetters and the whip. • 



for Nature here 



Wantoned as in her prime. 

Remark 4. — Nouns that designate a whole people are proper, but 
if they designate only a part they are common. 

EXAMPLES. 

The Americans are advancing in literature. 
The Bostonians have excellent schools. 
The French are a philosophic people. 
The Italians are a polished people. 

A party of Americans, with a few French and Italians, accom- 
panied us. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Analyze each of the sentences under the four remarks, 
and note the peculiarities of the words in italics. 



VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS PERSON. 35 



§ 22. VARIATIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Remark. — Substantives undergo certain changes called variations. 
These will be better understood by attending to the details of the 
variations, than by any labored definitions. 

Specification. — These variations are of four kinds; 
person, number, gender, and case. 



§23. PERSON. 

Definition 1. — The person of substantives denotes 
the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Specification. — Hence there are three persons : the 
first, second, and third. 

Definition 2. — The first person denotes the speaker, 

EXAMPLES. 

/will attend to the business. 

We have determined the route. 

My books are here. 

They want me immediately. 

Our industry will secure us against poverty. 

Remark. — Nouns are seldom nsed in the first person, and only 
when explanatory of a pronoun in the first person. 

EXAMPLES. 

I, John, saw these things. 

We, Jews, are a scattered race. 

We, Yankees, make gold out of frost and granite. 

EXERCISES. 

Write six sentences, three containing a noun in the first person, 
and three containing a pronoun in the first person. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 3. — The second person denotes the hearer, 

EXAMPLES. 

George, will you favor us with your company ? 

Ma, our teacher has a new grammar. 

Sister, will you show rne about this work? 

Girls, your conduct will not be approved. 

Home, thy joys are passing lovely. 

Ladies and gentlemen, we thank you for your kind attention. 

Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? 

Surely, my friends, you are in jest. 

Definition 4. — The third person denotes the person 
or thing spoken of, 

EXAMPLES. 

The books are here. The girls laugh. 

The lambs play. The dog barks. 

EXERCISES. 

Mention, 1. the person of each substantive in the foregoing exam- 
ples, 2. analyze all the sentences. 



§24. NUMBER. 

Definition 1. — Number is the variation of nouns that 
distinguishes whether one object, or more than one, is 
meant. 

Specification. — Hence there are two numbers, singu- 
lar and plural. 

Definition 2. — Singular number refers to one. 

Definition 3. — Plural number refers to more than one. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singulars. Plurals. Singulars. Plurals. 

tree, trees ; table, tables ; 

girl, girls; book, books; 

boy, boys; chair, ; chairs. 



NUMBER. 



37 



Remark.— Below follow a few rules, pertaining to the formation 
of plurals. The plan of the exercise is, to give the rule, and nouns 
in the singular, and let the student write them in the plural, ia ac- 
cordance with the rule ; but in the third and fourth rules the plurals 
are given. 

I. Nouns usually form the plural by annexing s to the singular. 







EXAMPLES. 






deacon, 


fact, 


wave, 


blessing, 


sight, 


vision, 


door, 


debt, 


thought, 


farm, 


mother, 


shore, 


heart, 


tree, 


apron, 


serpent, 


sand, 


river, 


dog, 


chain, 


sailor, 


brother 


brain, 


sigh. 


tongue, 


hope, 


eye, 


demon, 


friend, 


spring, 


head, 


lad, 


pin, 


neck, 


task. 


II. Many 


nouns form their plurals by 


annexing es 


to the singular. 



1. Singular nouns ending in s, z, sk, and ch sounded as. in church, 
and most of those ending in x, form their plurals by annexing es to 
the singular. 



kiss, 
fox, 



blush, 
church, 



EXAMPLES. 

switch, 
lash, 



box, 
wish, 



wretch, 
tax. 



2. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, annex es to 
form the plural. 



hero, wo, cargo, 



EXAMPLES, 
potato, manifesto, 



negro, 



echo. 



But the following nouns form their plurals by annexing s only, 
according to rule first : 



zero, 
grotto, 



canto, 
memento, 



solo, 
quarto, 



portico, 
octavo, 



junto, 
two. 



Again, if o is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by annex- 
ing * only. 



folio, 



EXAMPLES, 
punctilio, 



seraglio. 



3. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form their plurals 
by changing y into i and annexing es. 



EXAMPLES. 

fancy, duty, sky, 

charity, infantry, city, 

body, hospitality, misery, 



assembly, missionary, 
factory, inclemency, 

victory, secretary. 



38 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



But nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, annex s to y t as in 
rule first. 



EXAMPLES, 
day, valley, chimney, delay, 



J<>) T > 



money. 



4. Some nouns, ending in f or fi, form their plurals by changing 
f into its cognate v, and then annexing es or s. 



EXAMPL M S . 



sheaf, 


leaf, 


staff, 


life, 


knife, 


wolf, 


self, 


half, 


beef, 


shelf, 


wharf, 


thief, 


loaf, 


elf, 


w ife* 



III. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly. 



1. EXAMPLES. 



ox, oxen ; 

child, children ; 

woman, women ; 

penny, pence ; 

brother, brethren (of the same society.) 



2. Nouns derived from other languages, and not definitely 
anglicized, form their plurals as in those languages from which they 
were derived. 



man, 


men; 


goose, 


geese ; 


tooth, 


teeth ; 


die, 


dice ; 


louse, 


lice ; 


foo '(, 


feet; 



EXAMPLES. 



apex, 



' automaton, 

alumnus, 
analysis, 
amanuensis, 
animalculum, 
Eng. animalcule, 
antithesis, 
bandit, 
beau, 
basis, 
crisis, 



apexes, 

or 
apices; 
arcana ; 
automata, 

or 
automatons ; 
alumni ; 
analyses ; 
amanuenses ; 



f 



alcula ; 

antitheses ; 
banditti ; 
beaux ; 
bases ; 
crises ; 



cherub, 
criterion, 

calx, 

chrysalis, 
diaeresis, 
datum, 
desideratum, 

dogma, 

erratum, 



cherubim, 

or 
c lie rubs ; 
criteria, 

or 
criterions ; 
calces, 

or 
calxes ; 
chrysalides ; 
diaereses ; 
data; 

desiderata ; 
dogmas, 

or 
dogmata ; 
errata ; 



NUMBER. 



39 



momentum, 

monsieur, 

nebula, 

oasis, 

phenomenon, 

parenthesis, 

radius, 

stratum, 

speculum, 

stimulus, 

scoria. 

ignis-fatuus, 

stamen, 

thesis, 
vertex, 
vortex, 
virtuoso, 

fungus, 

focus, 
larva, 
index, 



momenta, 

or 
momentums ; 
messieurs ; 
nebulae ; 
oases ; 

phenomena; 
parentheses ; 
radii ; 
strata ; 
specula; 
stimuli ; 
scoriae ; 
ignis-fatui ; 
stamens, 

or 
stamina ; 
theses ; 
vertices ; 
vortices ; 
virtuosi ; 
fungi, 
funguses; 
foci, 
focuses ; 
larvae ; 
i indexes (tables of 
> indices (referring 



metamorphosis, metamorphoses; 
L memorandums, 
memorandum, 2 or 

I memoranda ; 
effluvium, effluvia; 



ellipsis, 
emphasis, 

encomium, 

ephemeris, 

genus, 

hypothesis, 

formula, 

gymnasium, 

scholium, 

seraph, 

lumina, 
miasma, 
magus, 

medium, 



ellipses; 
emphases ; 
encomiums, 

or 
encomia ; 
ephemerides ; 
genera ; 
hypotheses ; 
formulas, 
formulae *, 
gymnasia, 
gymnasiums ; 



< scholia, 



scholiums ; 
I seraphim, 
I seraphs; 

luminae ; 

miasmata ; 

magi ; 
[ mediums, 

media 



contents,) 

to algebraic quantities.) 



IV. Some nouns have no plurals. 



gold, 
lead, 
pride, 
flax, 



hemp, 
wisdom, 
silver, 
pitch, 



EXAMPLES. 

bismuth, 
industry, 
tin, 
mercury, 



sloth, 
barley, 
zinc, 
antimony, 



flour, 
molasses, 
rye, 
rosin. 



Remark. — Some nouns that were formerly regarded as always 
singular, are now used in the plural. They were regarded as singu- 
lar, because they were not observed as having any variations ; but 
when it was ascertained that they had variations, they took the 
plural form. 



EXAMPLES. 
wine, • brandy, sugar. 

% Some nouns are used only in the plural. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 



billiards, 

dregs, 

goods, 

ides, 

nippers, 

politics, 



3. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers. 
EXAMPLES, 
deer, swine, sheep, trout, 



ashes, 


entrails, 


bitters, 


hysterics, 


clothes, 


manners, 


embers, 


annals, 


morals, 


bowels, 


calends, 


assets, 



pleiades, 


statistics, 


pincers, 


ledings, 


shears, 


tongs, 


snuffers, 


victuals, 


shambles, 


vespers, 


scissors, 


lungs. 



kine. 



Remark 1. — When two or more persons of the same name are 
spoken of, it is customary to make the complimentary title plural. 



EXAMPLES 
The Misses Davidson, 



Misses Hopper, 



Remark 2. — Numeral characters, and alphabetic letters, are usually 
pluralized by placing s, preceded by an apostrophe, after them. 

EXAMPLES. 

8's, 5's, 3's, d's, p ? s, g's, t's, r's, e's, f s, v's, m's. 



§25. PARSING. 



Definition. — Parsing is mentioning in order all the 
peculiar variations of a word, and then the relation it 
sustains to other words. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Parse each noun in the following examples, so far as to mention 
its kind, person, and number, thus : Waves is a common noun, third 
person, plural. 

2. Analyze each sentence. 

3. Write and analyze as many more. 



TERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB. 41 

EXAMPLES. 

The waves of the sea dashed furiously against the shore. 

The churches of that village are built in the public square. 

The box of clothes was sent for the benefit of the orphans. 

Hopes are leaves of autumn. 

The missionaries have given half of their property for objects 

of charity. 
The money can be had without delay. 

The body should undergo a thorough ablution every morning. 
Light shone out-of darkness. 
That child loves her mother. 
The foot should not complain of the head. 
Man should not be moved by the impulse of a moment. 
A noxious miasma arises in all the low portions of the country. 
The index points the wrong way. 
The momenta of all bodies can be easily computed. 
The emphasis should be placed on the right words. 
We have no data for such a conclusion. 
The formula was given in these words. 
His clothes were made of the most costly materials. 
A man prepares his victuals. 
The dogs kill sheep. 
The goods are of an excellent quality. 
He will drink the dregs of his own cup. 
Politics engross the entire thoughts. 
Pride goes before a fall. 
Wisdom is ever distinguished for modesty. 
The annals of time will not present such a phenomenon agahu 



§26. PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE VERB. 



Specification. — Verbs, with respect to person and 
number, are divided into two forms : personal and imper- 
sonal. 

Definition 1. — A personal form of the verb is a form 
that may be varied to agree in person and number with 
its subject. 

examples. 

I study my lesson. We study our lessons. 

Thou studiest thy lesson. You study your lessons. 

He studies his lesson. They study their lessons. 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Observe how the pronoun, in the singular number, varies the 
ending of the verb. 

The verb is of the first, second, or third person, according as the 
substantive, which is its immediate subject, is of the first, second, or 
third person. It may also be observed, that the first person singular, 
and the first person plural, are of the same ending; but the second 
person singular, and the second person plural, have different endings, 
as also the third person singular, and the third person plural. Hence 
the person and number of the subject of the verb may vary its ter- 
mination. 

EXAMPLES. 



He laughs at me. 

I hold him up. 

Thou sheddest tears. 

I hope better things. 

He comes home. 

Thou pray est for peace. 

He returns all favOrs. 

I conquered Caesar. 

He destroys cities. 

Thou stray est from rectitude. 

They leave town. 

He chops wood. 

Thou drivest the carriage. 



We justify the obedient. 

They praise the faithful. 

You ride on horseback. 

I write slow. 

They haste home. 

You walk fast. 

They live well. 

We love the virtuous. 

He reads Horace. 

You learn fast. 

I fall trees. 

We spell each word. 

You fear death. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Parse each of the verbs in the above examples. That 
is, state the kind of verb, and the person and number. Thus, in the 
first sentence, laughs is an intransitive verb, in the active voice, and 
agrees with he in the third person singular. 2. Parse each substan- 
tive. 3. Analyze each sentence. 

Definition 2. — An impe?sonal form of the verh is a 
form that can not be varied in person and number to 
agree with its subject. 

Remark 1. — The impersonal form of the verb can never express 
a primary affirmation, but is always dependent in its construction. 

Remark 2. — These two forms will, for the sake of brevity merely^ 
be called the personal and impersonal verb. 

EXAMPLES, 

I wish to get my books. 

I wish you to get my books. 

I wish him. to get my hooks* 



PERSON A>ND NUMBER OF THE VERB. 13 

In each of these examples the personal verb wish is the principal 
word in expressing the affirmation, and the verb get is dependent p 
yet it has every essential property of a verb, since the person and 
number is a mere accidental circumstance, and not essential to the 
character of a verb. We can, however, frequently express the 
thought intended by this phrase containing the impersonal verb, by 
a personal verb preceded by that. Thus the sentences above be- 
come — 

I wish thnt I coutct get 'my bonks. 
1 wish that yon could gel my b'.-x-j-ks^ 
I wish that he could get my books. 

It is not pretended that this last manner of expression can, m 
every instance, be considered precisely synonymous with the first. 
Numerous instances will occur, where you can not change from one 
to the other, without doing violence to the sense. 

Remark 3. — The impersonal verb as really has a subject as the 
personal, only the impersonal verb is not varied in its person and 
number by its subject. The subject of the impersonal verb may be 
the agent or the recipient. 

In the example, I wish to get my books, the agent is to accomplish 
the act contemplated in the affirmation get; but in the example, I 
wish you ia get my books, the recipient is to accomplish the affirma- 
tion expressed by get. 

EXAMPLES. 

We ought to retire. 

He finds it difficult to understand you.. 

Permit U3 to withdraw. 

He determined to accompany us. 

You can prepare to go. 

Study to improve all your time. 

We are urged to be diligent. 

Labor to accomplish the purpose of life. 

You must learn to obey the laws. 

They were directed to return immediately. 

The army was ordered to ma r ch against Trenton. 

Time must be given me to collect my thoughts. 

Remark 4. — We have particularly mentioned is and are as used 
in the formation of the passive voice. These belong to the third 
person singular and plural. 



Persons. 


Singular. 


1. 

2. 
5! 


I am. 
Thou art. 
He is. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We will now give in their order the first, second, and third per- 
sons, singular and plural : 

Plural. 

We are. 

You are. 
They are. 

These express what is present. To express what is past by this 
same verb, the following forms are used : 

Singular. Plural. 
I was. We were. 

Thou wast. You were. 

He was. They were. 

These are sufficient, till we come to the examination of the verb 
in detail. 



§27. GENDER. 



Definition 1. — -Gender is the distinction of sex. 

Specification 1. — Hence there are two genders : mas- 
culine and feminine. 

Definition 2. — Masculine gender denotes the male sex. 

Definition 3. — Feminine gender denotes the female 
6ex. 

Remark 1. — Nouns not included in the above divisions, are desti- 
tute of gender. Such nouns are commonly designated by the name 
of neuter gender ; but we can discover no propriety in the use of the 
term. The words of the English language have real peculiarities 
sufficient, without appending negations as peculiarities. For the 
sake of convenient reference, however, substantives not denoting sex 
will be called neuter, when it is wished particularly to distinguish 
them from those having sex. 

Specification 2. — There are three ways of distinguish- 
ing sex. 



GENDER. 



45 



I. By different names. 





EXAMPLES. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


bachelor, 


maid; 


husband, 


wife; 


boy, 
beau, 


girl ; 


lad, 


lass; 


belle ; 


lord, 


lady ; 


brother, 


sister ; 


man, 


woman ; 


earl, 


countess ; 


master, 


mistress ; 


friar, 7 
monk, \ 




male, 


female ; 


nun; 


nephew, 


niece ; 


father, 


mother ; 


papa, 


mama; 


gentleman, 


lady; 


son, 


daughter ; 


king, 


queen ; 


uncle, 


aunt; 


wizard, 


witch ; 


duke, 


dutchess. 



II. By different terminations. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The nouns in the following list become feminine by annexing 
ess to the masculine : 



baron, host, mayor, 

deacon, Jew, prior, 

heir, lion, peer, 



poet, shepherd, 

priest, tailor, 

prophet, viscount. 



2. The nouns in the following list become feminine by rejecting 
the last vowel and annexing ess : 



actor, 

ambassador, 

arbiter, 

benefactor, 

chanter, 



conductor, 

doctor, 

editor, 

collector, 

enchanter 



founder, protector, suitor, 

hunter, songster, tiger, 

idolater, spectator, traitor, 

inventor, prince, votary. 



3. The nouns in the following list do not form their feminines in 
accordance with any regular plan : 



Masculine. 
testator, 
sultan, 

widower, 
ad ulterer, 
executor, 
hero, 



Feminine. 
testatrix ; 
sultaness, 
sultana ; 
widow ; 
adulteress ; 
executrix ; 
heroine ; 



Masculine. 



Feminine. 



sorcerer, sorceress ; 

abbott, abbess ; 

administrator, administratrix; 

bridegroom, bride ; 

emperor, empress ; 

governor, governess, 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ill By prefixing a distinct appellation. 

EXAMPLES. 

man-servant, maid-servant ; 

male-relations, female-relations. 

Remark 2. — The appellation of common gender, is sometimes used 
to distinguish nouns that include both sexes, or that may be applica- 
ble to either male or female. 

EXAMPLES, 
congregation, people, parents, neighbors, cousin, friend. 

But there is little propriety in the use of the term, and in this 
work it is rejected. Unless the gender of such nouns is known to 
be feminine, they will be called masculine, using the term in its 
generic sense. 

In the following sentences, no grammarian would think of parsing 
man in any other than the masculine gender; yet it is evidently 
meant to apply to all the humau race, whether male or female. 

EXAMPLES. 

The man of wisdom is the man of years. 
All men are created equal. 
No man may put off the law of God. 
So God created man in his own image. 
The Sabbath was made for man. 

Remark 3. — Inanimate objects are often personified, that is, used 
as if they had sex. 

Objects remarkable for greatness or strength, when personified, 
are, usually, used in the masculine gender ; and those remarkable for 
beauty or amiableness, in the feminine gender ; yet the rule some- 
times varies. 

EXAMPLES. 

The earth is covered with £erbeautifnl verdure. 

Conscience pleads her cause within the breast. 

"And Belgium's capital had gathered then her beauty and her 

chivalry." 
The sun has risen in his strength. 
Time hastes his rapid flight, 



AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 47 

Remark 4. — Collective nouns, referring to objects that have sex, 
are neuter if the persons making up the collection are regarded to- 
gether merely as a single object of thought. But if the individuals 
making up the collection are contemplated separately as individuals, 
then the noun will be designated by the gender of those composing 
the collection. The noun, if singular, in the first instance conveys 
the notion of unity, in the last the notion of plurality. Collective 
nouns in the plural are usually, though not always, used in the 
neuter, each collection being regarded as so many single objects 
of thought. 

EXAMPLES. 

The people are opposed to any such measure. 

The class is dismissed. 

The committee meets in a few days. 

The senate assemble on Monday. 

The army is at New-Orleans. 

The cabinet is not yet chosen. 

The convention adopts the resolution. 

The jury are not agreed. 

The party is dissolved. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Parse all the substantives in each sentence given under the sec- 
tion ; that is, mention the kind, person, number and gender of each 
noun or pronoun. 

2. Analyze each proposition. 

3. Write as many examples as you please. 



§28, AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 



Remark. — Since the pronoun is a substitute for a noun, it must, 
evidently, agree in person, number, and gender, with the noun it 
represents. Thence the following 

RULE of agreement: 

The pronoun must agree with the noun that it represents, in persxm, 
number f and gender. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

We are here. 

Amanda sent her respects^ 

The boys lost their skates. 

The girls have brought their baskets. 

We shook the trees, and picked up the fruit. 

You must get your cousin. 

Julia, bring me thy book. 

The priests opposed us. 

The scholars brought their slates with them. 

Woodman, stay thy hand. 

Ye can not serve God and mammon. 

EXERCISES. 

Parse each pronoun ; thus, we is a pronoun, representing th© 
speakers, with which it must agree in the first person, plural, mas- 
culine gender. 

Remark l.-—When the noun which the pronoun represents, is 
sufficiently obvious, by the person or thing being present, or in any 
other way, it is not expressed. If the pronoun represents the first 
person, we say it represents the speaker ; if the second person, the 
nearer \ if the third Derson, the person or thing spoken of. 

Remark 2. — 'The young of all animals may be spoken of without 
regard to their sex ; so also when the sex of any animal is not well 
known. 

Remark 3. — Any person r or number of persons, may be regarded 
as mere objects of thought, irrespective of personality ; and hence 
may have pronouns referring to such person or persons in the neuter 



§29. CASE. 



Definition 1. — The term case is used to indicate tile 
relation that substantives sustain to other words. 

Specification. — There are four cases : nominative, pos- 
sessive, objective, and absolute. 



CASE. 19 

Definition 2. — The nominative case is the noun or pro- 
noun that is the subject of a personal verb, (§ 26. Def. 1,) 
whether that subject be an agent or recipient. 

EXAMPLES. 

Bonaparte retreated from Moscow, 

War is not favorable to good morals. 

The east wind blows softly. 

Parents provide well for their children. 

We must study for improvement. 

Our hopes should be founded on reason. 

Industrious habits should be carefully cultivated. 

The falling leaf is an emblem of decay. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Point out each substantive in the nominative case in the 
above examples. 2V Analyze each sentence. 3. Parse each substan- 
tive ; thus, Bonaparte is a proper noun, of the third person, singu- 
lar, masculine gender, and in the nominative case to retreated. Here 
apply the following 

RULE of construction: 

The subject of a personal verb must be in the nominative case, 

4. Parse the verbs ; thus, retreated is an intransitive verb, and 
agrees with Bonaparte, in the third person, singular. Here observe 
the following 

RULE OF agreement: 

The personal verb must agree .with its tiomi-native, in person and 
number. 

Written and Oral. — 1. Write six sentences, each containing a 
substantive in the nominative case ; 2. analyze them, and parse the 
substantives. 

Definition 3. — The possessive case is a particular form 
of the substantive to indicate ownership or origination. 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR^ 

EXAMPLES. 

My books are here. 

Tour kindness will not soon be forgotten* 

The King's commands must be obeyed. 

Fortune's frowns can be endured. 

Death's work will soon be finished. 

The cares of life bear with weight upon my spirits. 

His income is equal to his necessities. 

Their pride will prove their ruin. 

The nation's laws must be obeyed. 

The scholar's eye must be trained. 

Thy cares weigh thee down. 

Scornful of winter's frosts and summers sung* 

Does his Creator's power display. 

He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire. 

Order is Heaven's first law. 

All nature's defense keeps all nature's peacev 

Fame but from death a villain's name can save'. 

While sparkling rage inflames the father's eyes. 

He bursts th^ir bands of fear and madly cries. 

Remark. — Pronouns, and nouns in the possessive case, have a par- 
ticular form, by which the possessive may be distinguished from any 
other case. 

Here follows a list of some of the pronouns of the possessive case. 

Singular, Plural, 



1st 


Person 




my, 


our, 


2d 


n 




thy, 


your, 


3d 


n 


Mas, 


his, 


their, 


«* 


u 


Fern. 


her, 


their, 


H 


u 


Neut. 


its, 


their. 



The following rules will be sufficient, for the present, for the 
formation of the possessive case of nouns : 

1 The possessive is formed by annexing s to the nominative, 
and placing a comma (called an apostrophe) between the nominative 
and the s, a little above. 

2. But in order to avoid the recurrence of hissing sounds, nouns 
in the plural ending in s. take the apostrophe without annexing s ; 
also, when nouns in the singular end in s, and the next word com- 
mences with s, the apostrophic s is usually omitted. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Parse each substantive in the possessive case in the fore- 
going examples ; thus, my is a pronoun, and represents the speaker, 
with which it must agree in the first person, singular, masculine gen- 
der, and in the possessive case, and modifies books. 



CASE. 



§1 



2. Parse other substantive's and verbs as before directed. 

3. Analyze each sentence. 

Written and Oral. — 1. Write six sentences, each containing at 
least one substantive in the possessive case, and analyze and parse 
as before. 2. Write the following nouns in the possessive, and tell 
how the possessive case of each is formed. 

EXAMPLES. 



man. 


liar, 


truth. 


body, 


lady, 


earth. 


hone, 


virtue, 


child, 


teacher, 


woman, 


fear, 


king, 


John, 


thief, 


heaven, 


bird, 


prophet, 


Moses, 


drunkard. 


God, 


eagle, 


<%, 


star, 


slave, 


angels, 


youth, 


sun, 


mooiij 


£.pple. 



Definition 4. — The objective case is a substantive used 
ss the recipient of a transitive verb in the active voice, 
or as the consequent term of a relation expressed by a 
preposition. 



EXAMPLES. 



They will frustrate our plans. 

Our cares increase our sorrows. 

We will await your relvrn. 

Therou acknowledged the justice of Cretan's whole argument. 

I will never cast a scornful eye on the laborer. 

The air frequently carries death along w T ith it. 

Prejudices have not darkened the mind, nor has the world debased 

the affections. 
The deceitfulness of the world lias destroyed thy confidence. 
Life has some realities. 

We should never squander away our time. 
She views the joys and sorrows of life, with an equal and steady 

eye. 
His eyes distinguish no object*. 
Modern degeneracy had not reached him. 
His august mind overawed majesty. 
No state chicanery, no narrow system of vicious politics, sunk Mm, 

to the vulgar level of the great. 
France sunk beneath him. 
With one hind he smote the house of Bourbon, and wielded, in the 

other, the democracy of England. 
These abominable principles, and this abominable avowal of them, 

demand the most decisive indignation. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Parse all the substantives that are in the objective case ; 
thus, plans is an abstract noun, of the third person, plural, and in the 
objective case, and modifies frustrate. Here apply the following 

rule: 

The recipient of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in the 
objective case* 

When the substantive in the objective case follows a preposition, 
the order of parsing should be thus : Argument is a common noun, 
third person, singular, in the objective case, and modifies justice, be- 
ing connected to it by the preposition of. Then the following 

rule: 

The consequent term of a relation expressed by a preposition, must 
be in the objective case. 

Written and Oral. — Write twelve sentences, each containing at 
least one substantive in the objective case, and then parse and an- 
alyze as before. 

Remark. — Substantives denoting possession or origin, may be in 
the possessive or objective form. 

EXAMPLES. 

He has done a man's labor. 

He has done the labor of a man. 

He complied with his father's request. 

He complied with the request of his father. 

The children's clothes are made. 

The clothes of the children are made. 

Webster's Dictionary will not soon go out of use. 

The Dictionary of Webster will not soon go out of use. 

Clarkson's benevolence is well known. 

The benevolence of Clarkson is well known. 

Hence the principle to be applied in parsing substantives denot- 
ing possession or origin, is expressed in the following 

rule: 

A substantive modifying another substantive, and denoting posses 
sion or origin, must be in the possessive case, if placed before the sub- 
stantive modified; but, if placed after the substantive modified, it must 
be in the objective case, as the consequent term of the preposition of 



CASE. 



EXERCISES. 



Parse each substantive in the possessive case, given under the 
head of the possessive, (Def. 3, § 29.) Thus, my, in the first example, 
is a pronoun, and represents the speaker, with which it must agree 
in the first person, singular, masculine gender, and in the possessive 
case, modifying books. (Repeat the first part of the rule.) 

Definition 5.— The absolute case is a substantive used 
without any immediate dependence upon other words, 
(§ 20.) 

EXAMPLES. 

George, you must return. 

Home, thy joys are passing lovely 

Wilt thou shun me, Ccesar ? 

Thy mansion wants thee, Adam. 

Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? 

Plato, thou reasonest well. 

O grave I where is thy victory % 

death ! where is thy sting? 

1 '11 tell you, friend. 

Thy numbers, jealousy, to naught were fixed. 
And speak, O man I 

My mother, when- 1 learned that thou wast dead, 
Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Tarse each noun used in the absolute case in the fore- 
going examples, and apply the following 

rule; 

A substantive having no dependence upo7i any other word, must be in 
the absolute case. 

2. Analyze and parse as before. 

"Written and Oral. — Write six sentences, each containing a sub- 
stantive in the absolute case, and then analyze and parse the substan- 
tives and verbs. 



Mr E3SSLISH liKAMMAR. 



§30, AGREEMENT IN CASE. 



Semark 1. — It has been noticed, (»5 19.) that a substantive signify- 
Big the same thing as another, may be added to the first, for the sak&' 
of explaining it, and hence performing the oiiice of an adjective. 
It should now be observed, that the explanatory substantive must h& 
in -the same case as the substantive explained. Hence the folio wing- 

rule: 

A substantive explanatory of another substantive, and signifying the 
mine thing, must agree with i£iw case* 

E X A M P L E S . 

Man, the creature of a day, often trifles with his best interests. 

The committee made him chairman. 

Citizens, friends of humanity, look at the withered hopes of your 

country. 
Mr. Davis, the music teacher, has called to see us. 
This has made us friends. 
Death, our common destroyer, often comes when we least expect 

him. 
Modesty, the becoming- virtue of youth, is often sought in vain. 
" Where are ye with whom in life I started, 

Bear companions of my golden days ? " 
Washington, the father of his country, was respected and loved 

by alL 
Winter, melancholy season, fly and yield the year to spring. 
Circumstances made us acquaintances, and acquaintance made ua 

companions. 
May you, my friends, be friends to all. 
Youth, the morning of life, is often misspent. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral.' — 1. Parse each explanatory substantive; thus, creature is a 
©ommon noun, of the third person, singular, masculine gender, and 
m the nominative case, explanatory of man. (Repeat the rule.) 
2. Analyze and parse the other substantives and verbs. 

Remark 2. — A very common construction places the explanatory 
substantive after an intransitive verb, or verb of the passive voice, 
thus rendering it a part of the predicate. A little attention will en- 
able the scholar to distinguish the intransitive verb, or verb of th» 
passive voice, followed by an explanatory substantive, from the verb 
yf the active voice, followed by its recipient. 



AGREEMENT IN CASE. 55 

The rule already given fur parsing the explanatory substantive, 
may be deemed sufficient for this particular construction; yet, as this- 
is peculiar, the following rule, which applies to the verb, and not to 
the explanatory word, may be used when the substantive follows 
the verb. 

RULE. 

Most intransitive verbs, and some verbs of the passive voice, may 
take the same case after them as before, when the latter substantive 
is explanatory of the former. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is a good boy. 

She is an industrious woman. 

He was chosen chairman. 

They are intimate associates. 

His philosophy is poor trash. 

They were called Jews. 

They are friends of humanity. 

We had been companions in iniquity. 

She was a very good scholar. 

He was a poor writer. 

He has been a useful man. 

We shall be teachers. 

Adams was a great statesman. 

Van Buren is an artful manager. 

Albany is the capital of New-York. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — Parse each explanatory substantive ; thus, boy is a common 
noun, of the third person, singular, masculine gender, and in the 
nominative case, explanatory of he, with an intervening verb. Give 
the last rule. 

Written and Oral. — Write ten examples like the last list, and 
parse as before. 

Remark 3. — It should be observed, that agreement in case does* 
not necessarily imply agreement in person, number, and gender. 
Substantives that agree in case, usually do agree in person, number, 
and gender * f but this is not a uniform principle. 

EXAMPLES. 
It is Joseph. It is I. It was you. It was the girls. 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



It, in each of the examples here given, refers to the person or per- 
sons as mere objects of thought, and does not designate their per- 
sonality. (§ 28. Rem. 3.) The substantive, after the verb, refers to 
the person or persons as individuals. 



§31. DECLENSION. 



Definition. — By declension is meant the changes in' 
form that a noun or pronoun undergoes in order to in- 
dicate its case. 

Remark 1. — The nominative, objective, and absolute cases of nouns 
in our language, are all of the same form. The possessive case of 
nouns, is of the same form as the others with the addition of the 
apostrophe, and the apostrophic s, when it is necessary, by which 
means it is distinguished. The other three cases must be distinguish- 
ed by the position they occupy in a proposition ; that is, by the office 
they perform. 

The following is the arrangement of the cases of a noun : 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative 


man, 


men, 


Possessive 


man's, 


men's. 


Objective 


man, 


men, 


Absolute 


man, 


men. 



Remark 2. — Most pronouns have a particular form by which the 
nominative, possessive, and objective cases, may be distinguished from 
each other; but the absolute case of pronouns is usually of the same 
form as the nominative, though occasionally it is the same form as 
the objective. 



1st Person 



2d Person 



( Nom. 
1 Pos. 
] Ob}. 
lAbs> 

(Nom. 
I Pos. 
) Obj. 
{Abs. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


I 


we 


my or mine 


our or ours 


me 


us 


I or me 


we. 



thou you or ye 

thy or thine your or yours 

thee you 

thou you. 



DECLENSION. 



57 



f Nom. 
3d Person ) Pos. 
Masculine ) Obj. 

lAbs. 



f Nom, 



3d Person 1 Pos. 

Feminine ) Obj. 

{Abs. 

!Nom. 
Pos. 
Obj. 
Abs. 



he 

his 

him 

he 

she 

her or hers 

her 

she 

it 
its 

it 
it 



they 

their or theirs 

them 

they. 

they 

their or theirs 

them 

they. 

they 

their or theirs 

them 

they. 



Remark 3. — The possessives mine, thine, hers, ours, yours and 
theirs, are used when the nouns to which they refer are omitted. 
If the nouns are expressed, the possessives my, thy, her, our, your, 
and their, must be used. Formerly mine and thine were used before 
nouns expressed, commencing with a vowel, but present usage re- 
quires my and thy. 

EXAMPLES. 

That book is mine. 

I gave Jane my pencil, and she gave hers to Eliza. 

All mine is thine, and thine is mine. 

We have good wheat, but yours is better. 

He took ours, and gave us his. 

We refused theirs upon any other condition. 

She asked for mine, but finally kept hers. 

Our fate was severe, but yours was more so. 

The committee received our proposal, but rejected theirs. 

Remark 4. — These pronouns contain within themselves two cases, 
and are to be parsed, first, as pronouns in the possessive case, in- 
dicating possession expressed in themselves ; and, second, as pro- 
nouns in the nominative or objective case, according to their relation 
to other words. Thus, hers is a personal pronoun representing two 
nouns, first, Eliza, with which it must agree in the third person, 
singular, feminine gender, and in the possessive case, indicating pos- 
session expressed within itself; second, it represents pencil, with 
which it must agree in the third person, singular, and in the objec- 
tive case, and governed by gave. 

Remark 5. — The pronoun you is strictly plural; but, by custom, 
it is used in ordinary discourse or conversation, to represent a single 
person, as well as a plurality of persons. It is always plural in form, 
and if in the nominative case, requires a plural verb. Where it re- 
presents a single person, it is to be parsed, agreeing with its noun 
in the singular, but of the plural form ; and, if a verb agrees with 
it, the verb must be parsed plural, as it is. If in any proposition 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when you occurs, it is found impossible to tell whether it refers to 
one or more than one, it is always to be regarded plural. That is, 
since it is plural in form, it must be regarded plural in signification, 
unless the contrary can be shown from the context. 

Remark 6. — Pronouns of the first or second person, may be either 
masculine or feminine; or, if in the plural, they may represent nouns 
embracing both sexes. When both sexes are included, it will be 
sufficiently accurate to call the pronoun masculine. (§27. Rem. 2.) 

He, his, and him, are always masculine ; she, her, and hers, fem- 
inine ; it and its, neuter ; and they, their or theirs, and them, mascu- 
line, feminine, or neuter. 



§32. CLASSIFICATION OF PREDICATES. 

Remark. — We can easily make the division of verbs into intransi- 
tive and transitive, the basis of a classification of predicates. 

Specification. — Predicates are divided into seven 
kinds: intransitive, intransitive post adjective, intransi- 
tive post substantive, transitive of the active voice, transi- 
tive of the passive voice, transitive post adjective of the 
passive voice, and transitive post substantive of the pass- 
ive voice. 

Definition 1. — An intransitive predication is an in- 
transitive verb, with or without modifiers. 

examples. 

The mother kneels by the side of her child. 

Sweet slumber lay on his rosy lips. 

Low-breathed accents rose on the still air. 

Faith triumphed. 

I sat down. 

Do not grieve for my calamities. 

You have fallen. 

She shouted for joy. 

Boundless prairies extended far to the west. 

I have spoken of the size of the dome. 

The wind issued from the right point. 

We came to the verge of the precipice. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PREDICATES. 59 

Definition 2. — An intransitive post adjective predica 

lion is an intransitive verb, followed by an adjective modi 

fying the subject of the verb, both adjective and verb be 

ins: with or without modifiers, 
o 

EXAMPLES. 

It is possible. 

The prayer grew more fervent. 

My father is very poor. 

My spirits were light. 

He was respectable. 

They are destitute. 

The little bird is perfectly tame. 

He was ready for business. 

They have been very faithful. 

The night was mild. 

The hue of his faded cheek was pale. 

The air was dense. 

Definition 3. — An intransitive post substantive predi- 
cation is an intransitive verb, followed by a substantive 
denoting the same person or thing as the subject of the 
verb, both verb and substantive being with or without 
modifiers. 

EXAMPLES. 

Our countrv is a glorious land. 

It is a fearful arch. 

St. Peter's church at Rome is the most expensive structure in the 

world. 
He was a happy man. 
She is a noble girl. 
They are good companions. 
They are cherished spirits. 
He has been the benefactor of his race. 
He is a man capable of great achievements. 
They are our brothers. 
He is a patriotic statesman. 
Mr. Judson was a most zealous missionary. 

Definition 4. — A transitive predication of the active 
voice is a transitive verb of the active voice, followed by 
the recipient of the verb in the objective case, both re- 
cipient and verb being with or without modifiers. 



6Q 



E N G LI S II GR A M M A R r 



EXAMPLE'S. 



The lion did not see me. 

I set my gun in a convenient place. 

She lifted her voice in prayer. 

A wild conflict shook the mother's frame. 

We stripped the vines. 

She feels a sweet joy. 

Literary men must respect themselves. 

We have a vast amount of talent at hand. 

The best diplomatists of Europe have confessed our power. 

The crystals bear a striking - resemblance to the branches of a tree. 

The poet loves the wild scenes of nature. 

They accomplished their purpose. 

Definition 5. — A transitive predication of the passive 
voice is a verb of the passive voice, either with or with- 
out modifiers. 

EXAMPLES. 

Education must be cherished. 

Our periodical literature has never been surpassed by any nation 

on earth. 
It is incrusted from end to end with the most beautiful formations. 
The dome is sustained by four square pillars. 

Definition 6. — A transitive post adjective predication 
of the passive voice is a verb of the passive voice, followed 
by an adjective belonging to the subject of the verb, both 
adjective and verb being with or without modifiers. 



EXAMPLES. 

She has been rendered miserable. 
They were called handsome. 
We have been uncommonly well. 
All were extremely happy. 

Definition 7. — A transitive post substantive predication 
of the passive voice is a verb of the passive voice, followed 
by a substantive denoting the same person or thing as 
the subject of the verb, both substantive and verb being 
with or without modifiers. 



ORDER OF PARSING NOUNS RECAPITULATION OF RULES. 61 

EXAMPLES. 

It was considered a commendable act. 

He was elected President of the United States. 

He was called William. 

She was named Melissa. 

EXERCISES. 

Analyze all the examples under the several kinds of predications ; 
thus, The mother kneels by the side of her child is a simple declara- 
tive sentence, intransitive predication, complex subject, and complex 
predicate. Mother is the subject of the verb; the is an adjective, and 
limits mother; kneels is the verb, and describes the state or condition 
of the mother ; by the side of her child is a prepositive substantive, 
and modifies kneels, telling where she kneeled ; of the child is a pre- 
positive substantive, and modifies side. Write examples of all the 
varieties of predicates. 



§ 33. ORDER OF PARSING THE NOUN. 



State 

1. Kind, 

2. Person 



f Proper, 
J Common, 
| Abstract, or 
(, Collective. 

First, 

Second, or 
Third. 



3. Number, ? 

4. Gender, < 

5. Case, 



Singular, or 
Plural. 

Masculine, or 
Feminine. 



( Nominative, 
L Possessive, 
j Objective, or 
^Absolute. 



§ 34. RECAPITULATION OF RULES. 

1. The subject of the personal verb, must be in the nominative 
case. 

2. The recipient of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in 
the objective case. 

3. The consequent term of the relation expressed by a preposi- 
tion, must be in the objective case. 

6 



C2 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



4. A substantive explanatory of another substantive, denoting pos- 
session or origin, must be in the possessive case, if placed before the 
substantive m dined ; bat if placed after the substantive modified, 
it must be in the objective case, as the consequent term of the pre- 
position of. 

5. A substantive having no dependence upon any other word, must 
be in the absolute case. 

(?. A substantive explanatory of another substantive, and. signify- 
ing the same person or thing, must agree with it in case. 

7. Most intransitive verbs, and some verbs of the passive voice, 
may take the same case after them as before them, when the latter 
substantive is explanatory of the former. 

8. The pronoun must agree with the noun which it represents, in 
person, number, and gender. 



§ 35. ORDER OF ANALYZING PROPOSITIONS. 



State 
1. Kind, 



2. Predications, 

3. Parts, 

4. Subject, 

5. Predicate, 

6. Modifiers, 



" Declarative, 

Imperative, 
< Interrogative, 

Exclamatory, or 
^Hypothetical. 

Intransitive, 

Intransitive post adjective, 
Intransitive post substantive, 
Transitive of the active voice, 
Transitive of the passive voice, 
Transitive post adjective of the passive voice, or 
I Transitive post substantive of the passive voice. 

Subject and 
edicate. 

Incomplex, or 
Complex. 

( Incomplex, or 
\ Complex. 

f Substantive, 
j Adjective, 
^ Adverbial, 

J Prepositive substantive, or 
1 Verbal. . 



5 sui 

\ Pr. 



CLASSIFICATION OF TRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS. G3 



§ 36. CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 

Specification. — Pronouns are divided into three kinds : 
Personal, Conjunctive, and Interrogative. 

Definition. — A personal pronoun is one that has a par- 
ticular form to show of what person it is. 

Remark. — We have as yet introduced, in the examples given, no 
other than the personal pronoun. 



§37. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Specification 1.— Personal pronouns are of two kinds: 
simple and compound. 

Specification 2. — The simple personal pronouns are 
five in number : J, of the first person ; thou, of the second 
person ; and he, she, and U, of the third person ; and each 
of these has its variations to indicate the different cases 
and numbers, as was shown by the declension, (§ 31.) 

Specification 3. — The compound personal pronouns 
are five in number, each with a single variation to indi- 
cate the plural, but no variations to indicate the different 
cases. 

FORMATION. 

. They are formed from the simple personal pronouns, by annexing 
the word self to the possessive case of the first and second persons, 
and to the objective case of the third person. They are in the 

Singular. Plural. 

himself, ) 

herself, * themselves, 

itself, ) 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Remark 1. — It is customary for an editor, or any other individual 
representing a party, sect, or community, when speaking, to use the 
pronoun me ; and when he has occasion to employ the compound 
pronoun, he uses ourself, and not ourselves ; implying that he speaks, 
individually, the sentiments or opinions of his party, sect, or com- 
munity. Yourself, and not yourselves, is used whenever but one in- 
dividual is referred to. 

Specification 4. — The compound personal pronoun is 
eithei reflexive or emphatic in its use. 

Definition 1. — When it is intended to represent an 
action as reverting upon the agent, the compound form 
is employed ; and this is its reflexive use. 

* Definition 2. — When it is intended to render an as- 
sertion emphatic, the compound form is frequently an- 
nexed to the substantive ; and this is its emphatic use. 

Remark 2. — The compounds used as reflexives, are always in the 
objective case ; and used as emphatics, they may be in any case ex- 
cept the possessive, and are always in the same case as the substan- 
tives to which they are annexed. 

EXAMPLES OF REFLEXIVES, 

He corrected himself. 

I struck myself. 

She found herself in good spirits. 

You have wronged yourself. 

They have undone themselves. 

You must take care of yourself. 

They dishonored themselves. 

You should respect yourselves. 

It takes good care of itself. 

He labors for himself. ; 

We found ourselves in difficulty. • 

The serpent coiled itself around the spire. 

EXAMPLES OF THE EMPHATIC. 

We are ourself of the opinion that the revolution will be success- 
ful. 
We can ourselves determine that question. 
I will do it myself. 
Then go thyself. 

You yourself must put your hand to the work. 
You know the man yourselves. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVES OF ONE CASE. 65 

He can not do it himself. 

They themselves are opposed to any such undertaking. 

She will be here herself. 

The society itself is encumbered with a heavy debt. 

I myself am your brother. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Parse the compounds, noting whether the use is reflexive 
or emphatic ; then parse the other substantives and the verbs. 
2. Analyze each sentence. 

Written and Oral. — Write six sentences containing the reflexive 
pronoun, and six containing the emphatic; and then analyze and 
parse. 



§38. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS, 



Definition. — 'A conjunctive pronoun is a word that per- 
forms at least the office of a conjunction^ and a pronoun 
at the same time. 

Specification. — They are of three kinds: conjunctive 
pronouns of one case, conjunctive pronouns of two cases, 
and conjunctive adjective pronouns. 



§39. CONJUNCTIVES OP ONE CASE. 



Specification. — The conjunctive pronouns of one case 
are who and that ; and to these may be added the con- 
junctive adjective which* when used without its noun, 



6t> ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS OF ONE CASK 

1. The ladies were present, and they (the ladies) did great ser- 
vice to our cause. 

2. The ladies who were present, did great service to our cause. 

The first is a compound sentence, the two propositions being con- 
nected by and; the last is a compound sentence, the two proposi- 
tions being connected by who. It will be noticed, that who connects 
the propositions, and is, therefore, a conjunction ; it is also used in- 
stead of ladies, and is, therefore, a pronoun. Hence its appropriate 
name, conjunctive pronoun, 

1. He is the same man, for I saw him at the stand. 

2. He is the same man thai I saw at the stand. 

The first is a compound sentence, the propositions being connected 
by for; the second is compound, the propositions connected by that* 
That is, therefore, a conjunction. It is also used instead of him, or 
man ; it is, therefore, a pronoun. Hence its name. 

1. I bought the books, and I wanted them, 

2. I bought the books which I wanted. 

The first is a compound sentence, the propositions connected by 
and; the second a compound, the propositions connected by which. 
Which is, therefore, a conjunction. It is also used instead of books; 
it is, therefore, a pronoun. Hence its name. 

Remark 1. — The words now under consideration, are usually 
called relative pronouns, but with what propriety, the author of this 
work has not been able to learn. He objects to the use of the term, 
because it is not distinctive. 

The term relative pronoun will apply equally to the personal pro- 
nouns as to the class under discussion. 

To illustrate : Sarah gave the book, which she bought of the 
pedler, to her sister. Let us apply the following definition : 

"A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to some word or 
phrase going before, called its antecedent." 

In the sentence above, which relates to book, some word going be- 
fore, called its antecedent ; therefore which is a relative prououn. 
Her relates to Sarah, some word going before, called its antecedent, 
(why not?) therefore her is a relative pronoun, (why not?) Hence 
which is a relative pronoun, and her is a personal pronoun. O logic! 
thou art a beautiful thing, especially when applied to English gram- 
mar. 



CONJUNCTIVES OF ONE CASE. (>7 



&EXARK 2. — Who is applied exclusively to persons. Which, as a 
conjunctive pronoun, is applied to things; that is, to brutes, inanimate 
objects, and to very young children, upon a principle stated, (§ 28 r 
Rem. 2.) That is applied both to persons and things. Formerly 
which was applied to persons as well as things. Examples of this, 
application^ are abundant in the Bible* 



EXAMPLES. 

He is the man who was wanted. 

The girls who study geometry make good proficiency. 
The lumber which was ordered has been furnished. 
The teams which we met were very heavily loaded. 
She exercises the same care over us that would be expected of her 
• under any other circumstances. 
He that can not bear reproof, is ill prepared to meet the buiFet- 

iugs of life. 
He is a fortunate man, that knows how to restrain his passions 

within proper bounds. 

Remark 3'. — Who is used in all the cases, though very seldom ire 
the absolute ; that is used only in the nominative and objective ; 
which is used in aH except the possessive, and inasmuch as which 
has no possessive, whose, the possessive of who, is used as its pos- 
sessive. 

Remark 4. — That and which are indeclinable; who is declined, or 
varied in termination, to indicate case, but not to indicate number. 



Who is thus declined : 



Singular. Plural, 



Nominative who, who, 

Possessive wlmse, whose, 

Objective whom, whom. 



Remark 5. — That does not in all instances perform the office of a 
conjunctive pronoun. Whenever you can supply its place with who 
or which, it is a conjunctive pronoun. In other instances it is an 
adjective or a conjunction. 

Remark 6. — The proposition introduced by a conjunctive pronoun, 
is called a conjunctive pronominal proposition, and is always adjective 
in the office it performs; that is, the proposition is, in some way, ex- 
planatory of the substantive that the pronoun represents, 



$& ENGLISH' GRAMMAR. 



RULES OF PUNCTUATION. 

I. When the conjunctive pronominal proposition sep- 
arates a verb from its subject, a comma must be placed 
before the verb. 

II. When the conjunctive pronominal proposition fol- 
lows another proposition, a comma should separate the 
propositions, unless they are very short and closely con- 
nected. 

EXAMPLES. 

He, vvlib can not endure adversity, is not qualified to meet the 

Bufferings of fortune. 
I desire that success in business, which will secure a comfortable 

living, and enable me to do some good. 
The man who always strives to please every body, is sure to 

please few. 
Any individual who is continually speaking of the faults of others; 

will cultivate that disposition which will surely bring upon his 

own head the just condemnation' of tire community. 
That person who continually frets and scolds, may be regarded 

as the worst enemy of the social circle. 
I fondly hope to see that change of public sentiment, which will 



EXERCISES. 

The pronouns, in the following examples, will be arranged with 
reference to making the scholar familiar with the proper disposition 
of the different cases. The scholar should first go through with all 
the examples, substituting the conjunction and pronoun in the place 
of the conjunctive pronouns. This exercise will give him a correct 
notion of the precise office performed by these words. Then go 
through with the punctuation. He may next parse all the conjunc- 
tives, stating what each one connects as a conjunction, and how dis- 
posed of as a pronoun. Then parse all of the other substantives, and 
the verbs, and finally analyze the whole. After this write as many 
examples on the black-board, slate, &c, as shall perfectly satisfy the 
teacher that the conjunctive pronoun is thoroughly mastered. 



CONJUNCTIVES OF ONE CASE. 69 

I. EXAMPLES IN THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few dis- 
appointments. 

He who would instruct men, must himself be instructed. 

Parents who train their children carefully, will reap a rich re- 
ward. 

The young man who is to gain his living by his labor, should know 
the worth of time. 

The man who exercises so little discretion, is now justly censured. 

The Emperor who long swayed the sceptre of tyranny, is now an 
exile. 

The citizens of America celebrate that day which gave birth to 
their liberties. 

There are two principles which are now likely to govern the 
world. 

The firmness of mind which is secured by the study of letters, is 
of the greatest service in every emergency of life. 

Popular governments are the mighty agencies which appear to be 
changing the aspect of the civilized world. 

The succession of the seasons, gives scope to that industry which 
is essential to the dignity of human beings. 

This is the hour which is devoted to study. 

At sea, every thing that breaks the monotony of the surrounding 
expanse, attracts attention. 

We saw, in the distance, the mast of a ship that must have been 
completely wrecked. 

That is the beast that was howling upon the hill. 

The man that can please no one, is indeed miserable. 

It is a principle that is almost universally acknowledged. 

II. EXAMPLES OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Men whose minds are occupied with trifles, will never accomplish 

any thing very valuable. 
John Q. Adams was a man whose mind was matured to virtuous 

principles in early youth. 
They are the men whose influence is felt to the remotest parts of 

this land. 
I honor the youth whose good sense induces him to avoid the 

fashionable amusements of the day. 
You are the man by whose kindness I have been saved from folly. 
They are not the persons into whose good graces I am anxious to 

get. 
There are persons for whose good we would gladly labor. 
The rose whose fragrance pleases the senses, is fragrant in decay. 
Is this your joyous city, whose antiquity is of such notoriety ? 
Any society whose benevolent operations are so extensive, must 

do immense good. 
The tree whose roots strike the deepest into the earth, stands the 

firmest. 



TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Churches whose lofty spires extend far into the heavens, are 
planted thickly in all parts of New-England's domain. 

Lands whose waters are conveyed to the ocean by the same nar- 
row stream, are occupied by hostile clans. 

The company in whose service I am employed, would not consent 
to such terms of settlement. 

III. THE OBJECTIVE CASE AS THE RECIPIENT OF THE VERB. 

Remark 7. — The conjunctive pronoun occupies the position of the 
■conjunction, and hence, when in the objective case as the recipient 
of the verb, it can not occupy the usual position of the noun after 
the verb, but must stand at the head of the proposition, consequently 
before the subject of the verb or proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am restrained by circumstances, which I may not now mention. 

They are principles which I must oppose. 

They a e the rules which I did not understand. 

The cattle which you sold us, were very valuable. 

This is the horse which you sold me. 

The property which Washington owned, is to be purchased by 
the nation. 

The star which they saw, was the guiding angel. 

He is a man, whom we all admire. 

Let him have the preference, whom God hath preferred. 

That individual whom we saw, was the King. 

Phillippi, whom the people honored, is now dethroned. 

Here is the book, that \ ou lost last evening. 

This is the principle, that we all admire. 

He manifested a spirit, that I verily abhor. 

Where is the military chieftain, whom we can safely call a good 
man? 

The chieftain and hero whom the people once honored, has now 
fallen in disgrace. 

Here is a man, whom the public reverence; does God acknowl- 
edge him? 

Temperate habits, which we all admire, are seldom possessed. 

The constitution which the people held sacred, was the first de- 
stroyed by the hand of a vicious foe. 

The forum which Cicero long honored, now lies in ruins. 

IV. THE OBJECTIVE CASE AS THE CONSEQUENT OF A PREPOSITION. 

Remark 8. — When the conjunctives who and which are in the ob- 
jective case, and connected to the -words they modify, by preposi- 
tions, the prepositions should, usually, be placed before the pronoun 
This principle is sometimes departed from by good writers ; that is, 
they sometimes place the preposition after the word to which the 
conjunctive is connected, while yet the conjunctive must stand, at the 
head of the proposition. This is called separating of particles, and 
$s deemed inelegant. 



CONJUNCTIVES OF ONE CASE. 71 

That, in the objective case, connected to some other word by a 
preposition, will not admit the preposition before it, but the prepo- 
sition must be placed after the word which that modifies. 



EXAMPLES. 

These are the men, to whom the oppressed look for justice. 
You are in the midst of a people, in whom you may confide. 
The missionary was a man, upon whom many burdens were bound. 
He is a person, of whom no one could speak ill. 
We met with our old companions, from whom we received many 

tokens of a hearty welcome. 
She is a person, of whom I would not take a farthing wrongfully. 
You are in the midst of friends, by whom you will be sustained. 
He is not a man, in whom you can confide. 
This is the basest piece of villainy, that I have heard of in many 

a year. 
The road that we traveled on, was very smooth. 
These are the books, for which you inquired. 
I will state to you the plan, on which I rely for success. 
The apparatus upon which you prided yourself, does not work 

well. 
The point at which you aim, may be reached. 
He is the most eloquent man, that I ever heard speak. 
Those are the same cattle, that I sent for. 
This is the most sublime scene, that I ever looked upon. 
That was the largest vessel, that I ever sailed in. 
The road, from the lake, was the smoothest, that I ever rode over. 



Remark 9. — When it. is stated, that conjunctive pronouns must 
stand at the head of propositions, it is not meant to assert that they 
must, when used, always be the first word in the proposition. When 
depending on the preposition, two, three, or more words, may stand 
before the conjunctive. 



EXAMPLES. 



These are principles, in the advocacy of which I am deeply inter- 
ested. 

Such were the conditions of life, in which they were found. 

Such are the conditions of that man of poverty, to whom this 
country is much indebted. 

He alone is truly praise- worthy, on whom virtue and benevolence 
have shed their radiance. 

The youth of the nineteenth century, on whom must soon rest 
the destinies of this people, should be made to realize their ob- 
ligations. 



72 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



METHOD OF SEPARATING THE COMPOUND SENTENCES OF THIS KINB 
INTO THE SIMPLE PROPOSITIONS THAT COMPOSE THEM, OF PARS- 
ING THE CONJUNCTIVE, &c. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few disap- 
pointments, is a compound, declarative sentence. 

Compound because (§ 13, Def. 2.) 

Declarative because (§ ) 

It is composed of the declarative proposition, they meet with few 
disappointments ; and the pronominal conjunctive proposition, who are 
moderate in their expectations. 

The conjunctive prepositive modifies they. 

Who is the connective, and is a conjunctive pronoun of one case, 
represents they, with which it must agree in the third person, plural, 
masculine gender, and in the nominative case to are. 

By the use of the conjunction and pronoun, instead of who, the 
sentence may be put under the following construction: 

They meet with few difficulties, if they are moderate in their ex- 
pectations. 



§40. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS OF TWO CASES. 

Definition.— A conjunctive jyronotm of two cases is one 
that performs the office of a conjunction, a noun, and a 
pronoun, at the same time. 

Specification. — They are whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, what, whatever, whatsoever, and very 
rarely which. 

Remark 1. — It will be perceived, that they are all compounded, with 
the exception of which and what, by annexing ever or soever to who, 
which, and what. The affix soever is not of so frequent use as ever. 



Remark 2. — All except whoever and whosoever, are conjunctive 
adjective pronouns ; but when the nouns to which they refer as ad- 
jectives, are omitted, (and they are oftener omitted than expressed,) 
they may, with propriety, be designated by the term now applied 
to them. 






CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS OF TWO CASES. ' 73 

Remark 3. — Whoever and whosoever are declined like who; the 
others are all indeclinable, and used only in the nominative and ob- 
jective cases. 

Remark 4. — Whoso was formerly much used as a compound, but 
its use is now obsolete. 

The following examples are introduced, upon which the student 
should be exercised, the same as under the conjunctives of one case. 
They are arranged under four divisions. 

EXAMPLE OF ILLUSTRATION. 

1. Whoever studies, will learn. 

2. Any person who studies, will learn. 

3. Any person will learn, if he studies. 

The threefold office of whoever, will be perceived from what has, 
hitherto, been said, by a careful contrast of the three compound sen- 
tences above. 

Whoever is a conjunction, a noun, and a pronoun. It does not, 
like the conjunctive pronoun of one case, represent some other word, 
but contains the noun within itself. It must be parsed in this three- 
fold sense- And if the student is at a loss to dispose of it in these 
several particulars, let him separate it, so that its office shall be re- 
presented by three distinct words, and then, by noticing how these 
are disposed of, he will be enabled to dispose of the compound. 

The order of parsing should be thus : Whoever is a conjunctive 
pronoun of two cases, of the third person, singular, masculine gen- 
der, and as a noun it is in the nominative case to icill learn, (give the 
rule ;) as a pronoun it is in the nominative case to studies, (give the 
rule;) and as a conjunction it connects the propositions, (give the 
rule.) 

I. EXAMPLES IN WHICH BOTH CASES ARE NOMINATIVE. 

Whoever has paid attention to the customs of the day, must have 
observed a remarkable innovation in the use of moral terms. 

Whoever falls on this stone, shall be broken. 

Whoever takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws. 

Whoever dreads punishment, deserves it. 

Whoever loves virtue, will practice it. 

Whoever shall be the friend of the world, is the enemy of God. 

Whosoever shall hate his brother, shall be hated. 

Whosoever hopes for peace of mind without virtue, entertains no 
just conceptions of the Creator's laws. 



V4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . 

Whosoever loves instruction, loves knowledge. 

What can not be cured, must be endured. 

What is now wanted, is good health. 

Whatever is read, should be read thoroughly. 

Whatever is demanded, shall be given. 

Whatsoever is done, must be done quickly. 

Whatsoever is just, is most appropriate. 

Whichever is selected, must be used well. 

Whichever suits you, can be had. 

Whichsoever is taken,* will conduct you to the same place. 

Whichsoever is best adapted to your wishes, shall be at your ser- 
vice. 

Whatever is plainly inconsistent with the highest good of the uni- 
verse, is illegal. 

The exertion of a large force through a small space, is what is re- 
quired of a pre«3. 

What is exactly suited to the circumstances of one person, may be 
very inappropriate to the condition of another. 

They have made themselves crooked paths, and whosoever goeth 
therein, shall not know peace. 

It is what it purports to be. 

Whoever copies truly what is before his eyes, will possess the* 
same variety in his dispositions. 

Whoever trusts to his imagination, will soon find his own mind 
circumscribed to a few favorite images. 

Whoever looks for a friend without imperfections, will never find 
what he seeks. 

What is obvious, is not always known ; and what is known, is not 
always present. 



IL EXAMPLES IN WHICH BOTH CASES ARE OBJECTIVE. 

I speak what history asserts. 

He has presented what he had prepared. 

What they leave, the beasts of the field shall eat. 

They little know what it costs to lay the foundation of the mis- 
sionary enterprise. 

Show the child that what he is doing he may do better. 

You can give whatever you wish. 

I will take whatever you can spare. 

He whose design includes whatever language can express, must 
often speak of what he does not understand. 

I will bring whatsoever you may desire. 

They can present whatsoever they have collected. 

You can choose whichever you may deem best. 

You may take whichever you prefer. 

Whatever favor you would gain, must be gained by the power of 
love. 

I wilT appoint whomsoever you may nominate. 

We will send whomsoever you may want. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS OF TWO CASES. 75 

CI EXAMPLES IN WHICH ONE CASE IS NOMINATIVE AND THE OTHER 
OBJECTIVE. 

W\3 value most what costs us most. .... r , 

This is precisely what has occasioned the favorable decision ol tne 

gentleman* 
What of his property belonged personally to Santa Anna, beoi£ 

was most careful to return to his agent. 
It is impossible to predict what will be its effect upon Europe, 
A lie is the utterance of what is not true. 
I send what the damage was. 

You are to be just what your principles make you. 
It is always easy to know what is right. 

What Lis mind could supply at a call, was all that he sought. 
He will choose whatever is suited to the mood of the hour. 
He would be able the better to decide what was required of BUB. 
We know what the law is which we violate. 
Whatsoever is right, I will give to you. 



CV. EXAMPLES IN WHICH ONE CASE DEPENDS ON A PREPOSITION, 
AND THE OTHER IS EITHER NOMINATIVE OR OBJECTIVE. 

This will give energy to what they say. 

He compares what he is doing with what he has done. 

Every one should consider for "himself the moral bearing of what 

he utters. 
We frequently act wrong, in despite of what we know to be the 

will of our Maker. 
It may be almost superfluous to dwell upon what is admitted to 

be so essential to all parties. 
Our proper bliss depends on what we blame. 



V. EXAMPLES OF A PROMISCUOUS CHARACTER 

What was seen, is described. 

Whoever may be found guilty, shall be brought to justice. 

If you secure what has been desired, it will be an unusual attain- 
ment. 

Whatsoever is required of the student, should be performed witU 
great promptness. 

Whatever has now been enumerated, 6ha!l be furnished. 

What will become of you, I know not. 

Whatsoever a man soweth, he shall reap. 

Whichsoever you may choose, shall be granted. 

W T hosoever takes the sword, shall fall by the sword. 

Whoever would have friends, should first be friendly. 

Whosoever applies himself unceasingly to study, with a soul con- 
secrated £o virtue, will surly rise to distinction, 



?6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



§ 41. CONJUNCTIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 



Definition. — A conjunctive adjective pronoun is a pro- 
noun, either simple or compound, performing at the same 
time the office of a conjunction, an adjective, and a pro- 



Specification.— - They are what, whatever, whatsoever, 
which, whichever, and whichsoever. 

Remark. — These have all been enumerated among the conjunctive 
pronouns of two cases, but only by the omission of the nouns to 
which they refer as adjectives. 



EXAMPLE OF ILLUSTRATION. 



1. I have bought what wheat I want. 

2. I have bought all the wheat that I want. 



These words, used as now contemplated, should be parsed in the 
threefold relation indicated by their name. Thus, what is a conjunct 
tive adjective pronoun ; as a conjunction, it connects the propositions ; 
as an adjective, it modifies wheat ; and as a pronoun, it represents 
wheat, with which it must agree in the third person, singular, and in 
the objective case, and modifies want as its recipient. (Give the 
rule.) 

EXAMPLES, 

What description of individuals is to be deemed members of the 

State, is not yet settled. 
Whatever aid is rendered, must be rendered soon. 
Whatsoever plan of government is best adapted to the geniu& of 

the people, should be adopted. 
Whichever system pleases best, may be taken. 
He has lost whatever skill he once had. 
He soon squandered what property his uncle left him, 
You may choose which alternative you please. 



REMARKS ON WHICH, WHAT, AND THEIR COMPOUNDS. 77 



§ 42. PARTICULAR REMARKS ON THE USE OF 
WHICH, WHAT, AND THEIR COMPOUNDS. 



I . WHICH. 

1. Which is properly a conjunctive adjective. Its position is be- 
tween two propositions that require the same noun in each, and im- 
mediately preceding the noun of the last proposition. The last pro- 
position is explanatory of the former, and which connects the two. 



EXAMPLES. 



(1.) That society is composed of living members, which members 

we are. 
(2.) Every man should be thoroughly imbued with the principles 

of virtue, which principles ought to practically influence him 

in all his intercourse with the world. 
(3.) After all the opportunities which he has had for improvement, 

which opportunities have been all that could be desired, he is 

yet a mere buffoon. 

In these, and all similar examples, which is a conjunctive adjective-. 

2. The noun of the last proposition, is omitted whenever the omis- 
sion will not obscure the sense ; then which, performing the office of 
a pronoun as well as that of a conjunction, is called a conjunctive 
pronoun. It becomes a pronoun just as any other adjective becomes 
a pronoun, by the omission of the noun to which it belongs. Nu- 
merous examples of this construction have already been given. (§ 39.) 

Note. — The use of the noun after which, is required, (1.) whenever in any kind 
of writing there is a probability of referring which to the wrong word ; (2.) when- 
ever it is desired to render the noun to which it relates emphatic. 

In the second and third of the preceding examples, the noun is re- 
peated for the sake of perspicuity, and in the first for the sake of em- 
phasis. 

It may be proper to add, that in conformity with the principle of 
perspicuity, the noun of the last proposition is very often expressed 
in legal documents or writings, siuce such documents should be as 
free as possible from all obscurity. 



T8 ENGLISH grammar; 

3. A much less frequent construction omits the former mm&,amM 
places which before the latter; and then which, as an adjective, modi- 
fies the noun in the latter proposition, and, as a pronoun, is in the- 
same case as the omitted noun. In this construction it is a eovsQimc^- 
live adjective pronoun. (§ 41.), 

EXAMPLES. 

I did not observe in which stage he took passage.-- 

I can tell you in which room you placed it# 

Did you see from which pocket I took the money ? 

I did not observe which way they went. 

You know which book is wanted. 

They had ascertained on which day I was t6 proceed.' 

Ihave found out which place will best suit your conveniences 

4. Occasionally both nouns are omitted, and then which is a c€m?~ 
junctive pronoun of two cases* 

EXAMPLES. 

You have n*>t ascertained which will suit me. 
You may have which yon prefer. 
I know which you will select. 
They saw which was preferred. 

Note. — It may be observed, that the use of which, as stated in the last two re^- 
marks* is confined to those instances where there is a.mere alternative^ 



II. WHAT. 

What is to be regarded in the same general view that has beem, 
taken of which, with these variations : 

(1.) The noun is usually omitted from both propositions; bene© 
what is usually a conjunctive pronoztn of two cases. (§ 40.) 

(£.}* The noun of one proposition must always be omitted, and if 
one of the nouns is expressed, what must be placed before the noum. 
It then, as an adjective, modifies the noun expressed, and, as a pronoua^ 
is in the same case as the omitted noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

Fdo not know upon what conditions he came. 
You may have what floor I obtained in New-York. 
I obtained what money he had. 

I can state what conditions were imposed upon hina* 
1 want what land lies on this side of the road. 
We did not understand upon what authority that statement was 
made. 



FNTERKOtiATlVE PRONOUNS. 



III. COMPOUNDS. 

The remarks made on which and what, apply to their compounds^ 
by omitting the first and second made on which. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Parse all the conjunctive adjective pronouns in all the examples 
given in $ 41 and § 42 ; 2. parse all the nouns and verbs ; 3. analyze 
each proposition; 4. write examples in imitation. 



$43. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is a pronoim 
used in asking a question. 

Specification. — WJio is the only pronoun used for this^ 
purpose ; but the interrogative adjectives which and what, 
when the nouns which they modify are omitted, may De- 
classed with who as interrogative pronouns. 

Remark 1. — Who, in its interrogative, as well as in its conjunctive" 
6en.se, always refers to persons; which and what, iw their interroga- 
tive sense, may refer to persons or things. 

Remark 2. — Who, as an interrogative, is used in the nominative,, 
possessive, and objective cases ; which and what, in the nominative* 
and objective. 

EXAMPLES. 

Who can hide himself? 
Which must be done first ? 
What is wanted ? 
Which will serve your purpose 1 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

What can be done in such an emergency ? 

Who wants what he can not get? 

Who called me ? 

What is to save us from the abuse of power ? 

Who has come ? 

Who could resist such an appeal ? 

What is left for us to do ? 

Who may bear up against the strong man ? 

Who have shown themselves the advocates of order ? 

Who goes a warfare at his own expense ? 

Who, that has the spirit of a man, would contend with an angry 

debater ? 
Who is disappointed ? 

Remark 3. — The regular place for the interrogative pronoun, is at 
the head of the proposition to which it belongs. Bence, notice the 
following particulars : 

(1.) When the interrogative is explanatory of a substantive that 
is the subject of an intransitive verb, the pronoun is placed before 
the verb, and the nominative to the verb follows the verb. 



EXAMPLES. 



Who is she ? (That is, she is who or what ?) 

Who are thine accusers? 

What is the demand ? 

What are you ? 

Who are my enemies? 

Which is the best article ? 

What is he not ? 

What is the difficulty ? 

(2.) When the interrogative, in the objective case r is the recipient 
of a verb, it still stands at the head of a proposition. 



EXAMPLES. 



Whom do you want ? Which shall I bring ? 

What has he accomplished ? Whom did you see ? 

What means this martial array? What did I hear ? 

What would she have ? Whom must we invite ? 

Whom should we leave ? What do you wish ? 

(3.) When the interrogative is in the objective case, depending on 
a preposition to connect it to the word it modifies^ it should be pre- 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 81 

ceded by the preposition. Good writers, however, sometimes place 
the preposition after the noun modified, thus separating particles. 

EXAMPLES. 

For whom did he inquire ? 

For what has he come ? % 

In whom should we confide ? 

After what do you run ? 

To whom should the fault be attributed ? 

In favor of whom was the draft drawn ? 

Upon whom does the censure rest ? 

In what does the error consist? 

Note. — These three divisions embrace a statement of tne usual construction ; 
particular deviations from them there are, but such deviations will be noticed in 
their proper place. 

Remark 4. — The construction of the interrogative whose, posses- 
sive of who, contains nothing peculiar. The following examples will 
show its use : 

By whose authority is this done ? 

In whose employ have you been engaged? 

Across whose lot did it pass ? 

Whose favor shall I secure, that I may accomplish my object T 

Whose judgment would not affirm this ? 

Whose beast have you in your possession? 

Through whose influence can this be best accomplished? 

That is whose business other than my own ? 

Do you seek a house whose maker and builder is God? 

Upon whose benevolence do you live ? 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Parse the interrogative pronouns in all the examples 
under this division of pronouns. Thus, who is an interrogative pro- 
noun, representing the person spoken of, with which it must agree 
in the third person, singular, masculine gender, and in the nomina- 
tive case to can know. (Give the rule.) 

2. Parse the other substantives and verbs. 

3. Analyze all the sentences. 

Written and Oral. — Write as many examples as your teacher 
may direct, and parse and analyze as before 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 44. GENERAL VIEW AND ORDER OP PARSING 
PRONOUNS. 



1. Kinds, * 



2. What it repre- 
sents, with which 
it must agree in per- 
son, number, and 
gender, (§28, rule,) 



3. Case, 



' Personal, 


( simple, 
I compound, 


] Conjunctive, 
^ Interrogative, 


C of one case, 
< of two cases, 
( adjective. 


Person, 


( first, 
< second, 
( third, 


j Number, 
(^ Gender, 


( singular, 
I plural, 
( masculine, 
I feminine. 


f Nominative, 
J Possessive, 
j Objective, 
I Absolute. 





4. Rule, in accordance with the case that points out the relation to 
other words. 



§45. FRAGMENTARY PROPOSITIONS. (ELLIPSIS.) 



Definition. — A fragmentary proposition is one in 
which there is an ellipsis of a word or phrase, which is 
readily suggested to the mind by the context, or some 
circumstance connected with the proposition. 

Remark 1. — It is a universal principle of language, to use just 
words sufficient to convey, with precision and perspicuity, the affirm- 
ations of our own intelligence to the minds of others. 

1>he use of more than sufficient for this purpose, constitutes re- 
dundancy ; the use of less, will produce obscurity. 

Note. — It is not intended by this remark, that our thoughts are always to be ex- 
pressed in the fewest words possible. We are at liberty to dress up whatever we 
wish to communicate, in such language as shall produce the strongest and most vivid 
impression ; but each proposition should embrace no redundant words, nor should 
there be any redundant propositions. Every stroke of the brush should add some- 
thing to the canvas, or the brush should not be used. 



CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 8$ 

EXAMPLES WHERE THE ELLIPSIS IS SUPPLIED FROM THE CONTEXT. 

You have done as you should not (have done.) 

Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, but God will never 

(dismiss compassion from his heart.) 
Mortals, whose pleasures are their only care, 

First wish to be imposed on, and then are (imposed on.) 
They look on nature's (course) and on fortune's course. 
Show men dutiful ? (Do men show themselves dutiful? ) 
Why so didst thou (shoio thyself dutiful? ) 

Has he your confidence ? Yes, 

Did you see him ? No, *** 

Will he marry her? Never, 

Does he owe you anything ? Nothing, 

Was you aware of the difficulty ? I was not — — 
Are they ready ? They are 

EXAMPLES IN WHICH THE ELLIPSIS EMPLOYED IS SUGGESTED BY 
THE CIRCUMSTANCES, THE OCCASION, &c. 

Good morning. (I wish you a good morning.) 
Adieu. (I will bid you adieu.) 
Farewell, &c. 

The title* pages of books, the inscription on tomb-stones, the back- 
ing of letters, &c., furnish us with an immense variety of frag- 
mentary propositions. 

RULE OF PUNCTUATION. 

The omission of a conjunction, or a verb, if it come between other 
words, must be marked by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

The quiet, snug home, is the joy of a German. 
The rude, wild prospect, was soon lost in the distance. 
A small, narrow stream, coursed its way across my father's plant- 
ation. 
Our thoughts should be many ; our words, few. 



§ 46. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Remark 1. — Compound sentences are made up of propositions 
(§ 13) either entire or fragmentary. 

Specification. — The propositions composing a com- 
pound sentence, are pri??ia?y, secondary, or correlative. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 1. — A primary proposition is a principal 
proposition, upon which others may depend, but which 
might itself form a perfect sentence. 

Definition 2. — A secondary proposition is one that 
modifies some word or proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

The principles which actuate us, are based upon the gospel. 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to some 

follies which we have committed. 
He thai hath light within his own clear breast, may enjoy bright day. 

In these examples, the propositions in italics are secondary, each one 
performing the office of an adjective ; the others are primary. 

Definition 3. — Correlative propositions are such as 
have a mutual dependence on each other, and this mutual 
dependence is expressed by conjunctions, &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

Because he is good, therefore he is great. 
As in Adam all died, so in Christ shall all be made alive. 
They will neither do the work themselves, nor let me do it. 
Although I did not understand his words, yet I could his actions. 
If the patient wishes to recover, then he must follow my prescrip- 
tions. 

Specification. — Compound sentences may be arranged 
in six classes, depending on their composition. They may 
be composed of — 

1. Simple subject and compound predicate. 

2. Compound subject and simple predicate. 

3. Compound subject and compound predicate. 

4. Primary and simple or compound secondary pro- 
positions. 

5. Two or more primary propositions, each independ- 
ent, or accompanied by secondary propositions. 

6. Correlative propositions. 



CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 85 



RULES OF PUNCTUATION. 

The following rules of puuctuation, will be observed in the con- 
struction of compound propositions : 

1. When several words have a joint reference in construction, they 
are, with their modifiers, to be separated from each other by a comma. 

2. When only two words have a joint reference, the comma is 
not inserted, unless the words have modifiers or are emphatic. 

3. When words, having a joint reference, are the subjects of a per- 
sonal verb, a comma must be inserted before the verb. 

4. When words, having a joint reference, are joined in pairs, 
they must be separated in pairs by a comma. 

5. When several primary and independent propositions are con- 
structed into a sentence, they are, usually, separated from each other 
by a mark [;] called a semi-colon. 

I. Simple subject and compound predicate, is when 
several predications are made of the same subject. 



EXAMPLES. 

John chops and mows. 

The lad can run and jump. 

Can the lad run and jump ? 

The horse ran away and broke the wagon. 

The warrior boasts of courage, vaunts honor, claims to be invinci- 
ble, and is slain with a bit of lead. 

Genuine virtue embelishes, enriches, ennobles, expands, and re- 
creates the human soul. 

True politeness softens the manners, refines the taste, develops 
the affections, gives influence to character, and ever renders its 
possessor an agreeable companion. 

May gold buy friends, make enemies, produce war, settle treaties, 
crown kings, and dethrone emperors ? 

Will Joseph walk, ride the horse, be conveyed in the stage-coach, 
or take the steam-cars ? 

The book was written, printed, bound, sold, bought, and read. 

Apply the plough of perseverance, sow the seeds of innocence, 
cultivate the germs of contentment, rear the healthy plant of in- 
telligence, and reap the fruits of unceasing happiness. 

Vapors rise, become condensed, and fall in rain. 
S 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

II. Compound subject and simple predicate, is when 
the same fact is predicated of several Subjects. 

EXAMPLES. 

Boys and girls study. 

The horse, dog, and cat, can run. 

John, James, rhilip, and Henry, study grammar. 

Pen, ink, and paper, are used in writing. 

Will William or Ira go ? 

William or Ira will go. 

Will William and Ira go ? 

The hoe, plough, scythe, and wagon, are implements of husbandry. 

Grains, vegetables, butter, cheese, and wool, are products of the 
farm. 

Temperance, industry, perseverance, and constant application, can 
make the eminent scholar. 

Can the wealth of Croesus, the eloquence of Cicero, the achieve- 
ments of Caesar, or the dominion of Alexander, heal remorse? 

War, famine, pestilence, and death, follow in the train with human 
ills. 

The stately oak, the towering pine, and the drooping fern, claim a 
common origin. 

Continents, islands, mountains, oceans, seas, and gliding brooks, 
form one common world. 

III. Compound subject and predicate, is when there 
are several subjects, and several particulars predicated 
of each one. 

EXAMPLES. 

The boy and girl can read and write. 

Henry, George, and Thomas, can read, write, cypher, and hoe 
corn. 

Wheat, rye, oats, and barley, are sowed and harvested on the farm. 

Wool, camel's hair, hemp, flax, and even the leaves of some trees, 
are prepared, spun, and woven into cloth. 

The rolling spheres, the flying clouds, the heaving ocean, the tower- 
ing mountain, the placid lake, the extended plain, and the trem- 
bling leaf, join their evidence, and proclaim the existence of 
Deity. 

Grammar, arithmetic, geography, and analysis, have been com- 
menced, pursued, and completed by the student. 

The beech, maple, oak, and hickory, spring up, grow to maturity, 
die, and return again to dust. 

Health, wealth, and happiness, are secured and retained by tem- 
perance. 

The vicious son and the heedless daughter, blight the hopes, dis- 
grace the life, and embitter the death of the parent. 



CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 87 

Greek, Latin, and French, are learned and spoken. 

Steam engines and printing presses are invented and constructed 

by the mechanic. 
The sage, the philosopher, and the prince, must die, and moulder 

in one common grave. 

IV. Primary and simple or compound secondary pro- 
positions, are such as contain a single primary proposi- 
tion, and one or more modifying propositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

I knew nothing of this lamentable history, of which the principal 

details were now passing confusedly before me. 
I had heard sufficient to understand that it was full of dangers. 
He was not bewildered by the expression of so many grand 

thoughts, nor by the chaos into which he could, with one word, 

throw light. 
You would have said, to hear him so abruptly quit his nocturnal 

drama, that the passionate inspiration he had been obeying, had 

suddenly left him. _ 
Within a short distance of the city of Boston, stands an institution 

of learning, which was one of the earliest cares of the early 

forefathers of the country. 
I appeal to you, Mr. Chairman and fellow citizens, that such a 

work, on such a spot, is in accordance with the principles and 

purest feelings of our nature. 
The American, who can gaze on that noble structure with indiffer- 
ence, does not deserve the name of American. 
Whoever has paid attention to the manners of the day, must have 

perceived a remarkable innovation in the use of moral terms. 
There was no one who did not dread the moment when solitude 

should deliver him to the tyranny of reflection. 
The persons who suggest this objection, of course, think that there 

are some projects and undertakings that do good. 

V. Two or more primary propositions, with or without 
modifying propositions. The examples will show the 
composition of these. 

EXAMPLES. 

And besides this, add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowl 
edge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temperance, pa- 
tience ; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly 
kindness ; and to brotherly kindness, charity. 

Whoever looks for a friend without imperfections, will never find 
what he seeks ; we love ourselves with all our faults, and we 
ought to love our friends in like manner. 

Wit makes an enterpriser ; sense, a man. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I can bear with manlike dignity whatever happens ; can be con* 
tented and fully happy in the good I possess; and can pass 
through this turbid, this fickle, this fleeting period, without be- 
wailings, or envyings, or murmurings, or complainings. 

Many a man lives a burden to the earth ; but a good book is the 
precious life-blood of a master-spirit. 

Christianity is indeed peculiarly fitted to the more delicate sensi- 
bilities of refined minds ; to the more improved stages of soci- 
ety ; and especially to that dissatisfaction with the present state, 
which always grows with the growth of our moral powers and 
affections. 

This saint entered the prison with the same countenance with 
Which he reduced the thirty tyrants ; and he took off ignominy 
from the place ; for how could it be deemed a prison when So- 
crates was there ? 

Infidelity is, at least, a shallow quality ; and, in objects of eternal 
moment, it is poisonous to society. 

From the worm that grovels in the dust beneath our feet, to the 
track of the leviathan in the foaming deep ; from the moth that 
corrupts the secret treasure, to the eagle that soars above its 
eyry in the clouds ; from the wild ass in the desert, to the lamb 
within the shepherd's fold ; from the consuming beast, to the 
cattle upon a thousand hills ; from the rose of Sharon, to the 
cedar of Lebanon ; from the crystal stream gushing forth out of 
the flinty rock, to the wide waters of the deluge ; from the lonely 
path of the wanderer, to the gathering of a mighty multitude; 
from the tear that falls in secret, to the din of battle, and the 
shout of a triumphant host ; from the solitary in the wilderness, 
to the satrap on the throne ; from the mourner clad in sackcloth, 
to the prince in purple robes ; from the gnawings of the worm 
that dieth not, to the seraphic visions of the blest; from the 
still small voice, to the thunders of Omnipotence ; from the 
depths of hell, to the regions of eternal glory ; there is no de- 
gree of beauty or deformity, no tendency to good or evil, no 
shade, of darkness nor gleam of light, which does not come 
within the cognizance of the holy Scriptures. 

Note. — Correlative propositions will be noticed in another place. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Give the reason for the punctuation of all the examples 
in this section. 

2. Analyze all the compound sentences, and the propositions of 
which they are composed. 

3. Parse the substantives. 

Written and Oral. — Write three examples in imitation, under 
each division, and give the punctuation, &c, as before. 



VERBS. 89 



§47. VERBS. 

Remark 1. — Verbs are the most complicated and difficult class of 
words in the language ; the scholar must, therefore, have patience to 
take the successive exercises necessary to make the whole clear. 

Remark 2. — The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive, 
(§ 17,) and the transitive into active voice and passive voice, (§ 18,) 
has been sufficiently dwelt upon. 

Again, the personal and impersonal forms were noticed, (§ 26.) 

Our attention must next be called to the 

ROOTS. 

Definition 1. — The root of the verb is that part of the 
verb from which all the other parts are derived. 

The following examples will illustrate this definition : 

EXAMPLES. 

I favor the design. ( Favor t the root.) 

I favored the design. " " 

I am favoring the design. " " 

The design is favored by me. " " 

I want fruit. ( Want, the root.) 

I wanted fruit. " " 

I am wanting fruit. " " 

Fruit is wanted by me. " " 

I write letters. ( Write, the root.) 

I wrote letters. " " 

I am writing letters. '* " 

The letters are witten by me. " " 

I see the birds. (See, the root.) 

I saw the birds. " '* 

I am seeing the birds. " " 

The birds are seen by me. " " 

Observe, in these sets of examples, from the several roots favor 
want, write, and see, are derived three other parts. 

From favor we have favored, favoring, favored. 
" want " " wanted, wanting, wanted 
" write " " wrote, writing, written* 
" see " " saw, seeing, seen, 



90 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 



Remark I. — We shall, hereafter, have occasion to notice that theser 
three derived parts are used in forming other parts of the verb ; and 
lience they are also called roots. The one from which the other 
three are derived, is called the primary root; and the three derived, 
are called the secondary roots. Arranged in their order, they are 
designated, for the sake of brevity, the fi'rstVsecond r third,and fourth) 
roots, thus : 



Primai 


"!b 




Secondary. 




% 

Favor, 
Want, 
Write, 

See, 


2. 
favored, 
wanted, 
wrote, 
saw, 


3. 
favoring, 
want'ng, 
writing, 
seeing, 


41 
favoredi 
wanted, 
written, 
seen. 



Remark 2. — In the first two examples, the second and fourth 
roots are formed from the first, by annexing ed. The third is formed 
from the first, by annexing ing. 

In the last two examples, this method of formation is different §6r 
the second and fourth roots. 

There are also verbs that are deficient in, a part or all of the 
secondary roots. 

Specification. — Hence the verbs are divided into three 
classes, with reference to the formation of their roots : 
regular, irregular, and defective. 

Definition 2. — Regular verbs are such as form their 
secondi and; fourth roots from the first, by annexing d, 
or ed. 

EXERCISE. 

Written. — Let the student write out the secondary roots of each 
of tbe following regular verbs, in conformity with the following. 

R U L E s r 

I. If the verb ends with e, annex d only to form the second and 
fourth roots; and to form the third root, drop e, and annex ing. 







EXAMPLES. 






love, 


stake, 


plate, 


notice, 


pine, 


hope, 


retire, 


pledge, 


noise, 


practicej 


release, 


place, 


poke, 


pillage, 


praise, 


face, 


plane, 


poise, 


pile, 


shade, 


move, 


plague, 


pole, 


pierce, 


hate, 


please, 


plunge, 


note, 


picture, 


save. 



IE If the verb ends with a consonant, annex ed to form the= 
second and fourth?. roots, and ing to form the third root. 



work, 


retort;. 


retain, 


plot, 


stamp, 


peal, 


stall, 


planks 


stroll, 


plant, 


return, 


plaster, 


retract, 


plough. 



XAMPLES. 






pluck, 
point, 


nourish, 
paint, 


dressy. 
press> 


poison, 

exceed, 

excel, 

poll, 

post r . 


pinch, 

pinion, 

seam, 

shell, 

rap, 


guess, 
wish, 
fish, 
. hunt; 
fear. 



III. If the verb ends in y, preceded by a consonant, y is changed 
into i, and ed is annexed to form the second and fourth roots, and the' 
third is formed by annexing ing without a change. 



pity, notify, cry, 



EXAMPLES, 
dry, fry, defy, rely, comply- 



But when y is preceded by a vowel, the roots are formed as under 
rule second. 



say, 



pay, 



EXAMPLES, 
pray, play, obey, 



slay, 



stay. 



Definition 3. — Irregular verbs are such as form their 
second and fourth roots from the first, upon no regular 
plan. The third root is always regularly formed by an- 
nexing ing. 

Remark. — Here follows a list of all, or nearly all, the irregular 
verbs in our language, arranged for future reference. 

Those marked with a star, have a regular form as well as irregular. 



Primary root. 

1. 

Abide, 
Am or be, 
Awake,* 
Arise, 

Bear, (to sustain,) 



Secondary roots. 



Bear,(to bring forth, 
Beat, 



abode, 

was, 

awoke,* 

arose, 
< bore, 
\ bare, 

5 bore, 

'> X bare, 

beat. 



3. 

abiding, 
being, 
awaking, 
arising, 

bearing, 

bearing, 
beating. 



4. 
abode, 
been, 
awaked, 
arisen. 

borne. 

born, 
beaten. 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



% 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Bend.* 


bent,* 


bending, 


bent. 


Bereave,* 


bereft,* 


bereaving, 


bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Bid, 


S bid, 
\ bade. 


bidding, 


( bidden, 
\ bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


C bitten, 
I bit. 
bled. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Catch,* 


caught,* 


catching, 


caught. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


1 chidden, 
\ chid, 
chosen. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


Cleave,* (to adhere,) clave,* 


cleaving, 


cleaved. 


Cleave, (to split,) 


< clove, 
I cleft, 


cleaving, 


( cloven, 
} cleft. 


Cling, 
Clothe, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


clad.* 


clothing, 


clad. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew,* 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Dare, (to venture,) 


durst. 


daring, 


dared. 


Dare, (to challenge; 


) dared, 


daring, 


dared. 


Deal 


dealt,* 


dealing, 


dealt. 


»ig, 


dug,* 


digging, 


dug. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt,* 


dreaming, 


dreamt. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


( drank, 
I drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt,* 


dwelling, 


dwelt. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Engrave, 


engraved, 


engraving, 


engraven 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying* 


flown. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgetting, 


forgotten. 







VERBS. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking. 


forsaken, 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Freight, 


freighted; 


* freighting, 


fraught. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


gotten, 
got. 


Gild, 


gilt,* 


gilding, 


gilt. 


Gird, 


girt,* 


girding, 


girt. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved,* 


graving, 


graven. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 
having, 


grown, 
had. 


Have, 


had, 


Hang, 


hung,* 


hanging, 


hung. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Heave, 


hove,* 


heaving, 


hoven. 


Hew, 


hewed,* 


hewing, 


hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden, 
hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


holding, 


held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt,* 


kneeling, 


knelt. 


Knit, 


knit,* 


knitting, 


knit. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lade, 


laded,* 


lading, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit,* 


lighting, 


lit.* 


Load, 


loaded, 


loading, 


laden.* 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


ment,* 


meaning, 


meant.* 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mown.* 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Pen, (to enclose,) 


pent,* 


penning, 


pent. 


Quit, 


quit,* 


quitting, 


quit.* 


Read, 


read, 


reading, 


read. 


Reave, 


reft,* 


reaving, 


reft,* 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent, 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


riding, 


rode, 
ridden, 


Ring, 


$ rung, 
I rang, 


ringing, 


rung. 



93 



94 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



I. 
Rise, 

Rive, 
Run, 
Saw, 
Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

i* how, 

Shoot, 

Shut, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Sing, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Sleep, 

Slide, 

Sling, 
Slink, 
Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, 

Speed, 

Spend, 

Spill, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 
Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 
Steal, 
Stick, 
Sting, 

Btr'ide f 



3. 



rose, 

rived, 

ran, 

sawed, 

said, 

saw, 

sought, 

sod,* 

sold, 

sent, 

set, 

shook, 

shaved, 

sheared, 

shed, 

shone,* 

shod, 

showed, 

shot, 

shut, 

shred, 

shrunk, 

sung, 

sang, 

sat, 

slew, 

slept, 

slid, 

slung, 
slunk, 
slit,* 

smote, 

sowed, 

spoke, 

sped, 

spent, 

spilt,* 

spun, 

spit, 

spat, 

split, 

spread, 
; sprung, 
I sprang, 

6tood, 

stole, 

stack, 

stun^, 

strode, 

strid, 



rising, 


risen. 


riving, 


riven.* 


running, 


run. 


sawing, 


sawn.* 


saying, 


said. 


seeing, 


seen. 


seeking, 


sought. 


seething, 


sod.* 


selling, 


sold. 


sending, 


sent. 


setting. 


set. 


shaking, 


shaken. 


shaving, 


shaven.* 


shearing, 


shorn.* 


shedding, 


shed. 


shining, 


shone.* 


shoeing, 


shod. 


showing, 


shown.* 


shooting, 


shot. 


shutting, 


shut. 


shredding, 


shred. 


shrinking, 


shrunk. 


singing 


€<mg. 


sitting, 


sat. 


slaying, 


slain. 


sleeping, 


slept. 


sliding, 


5 slidden, 
\ slid. 


slinging, 


slung. 


slinking, 


.slunk- 


slitting, 


slit.* 


smiting, 


1 smitten, 
I smit. 


sowing, 


sown. 


speaking, 


spoken 


speeding, 


sped. 


spending, 


spent. 


spilling, 


spilt* 


spinning, 


spun. 


spitting, 


spit. 


splitting, 


split. 


spreading, 


spread. 


springing, 


sprung. 


standing, 


stood. 


stealing, 


stolen. 


jstieking, 


stuck. 


stinging, 


stung. 


striding, 


stridden. 



VERBS. 



95 



I, 


2. 


3. 


4. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck. 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strown.* 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 


sweating, 


sweat.* 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swollen,* 


Swim, 


( swum, 
I swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 
teaching, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought,. 


thinking, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve,* 


thriving, 


thriven.* 


Throw, 


threw,* 


throwing. 


thrown.* 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust* 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


( trod, 
\ trodden. 


Wake, 


wake,* 


waking, 


waked. 


Wax, 


wax,* 


waxing, 


waxen.* 


Weave, 


wove,* 


weaving, 


woven.* 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weep, 


wept,* 


weeping, 


wept.* 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound,* 


winding. 


wound.* 


Wet, 


wet,* 


wetting, 


wet.* 


Wont, 


wont,* 


wonting, 


wont.* 


Work, 


wrought,* 


working, 


wrought.* 


Wring, 


wrung,* 


wringing 


wrung.* 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. 


Definition 


4. — Defective verbs are such 


as have only 



a part of the roots. 

The following is a list of the defective verbs : 

Secondary roots* 



Primary root. 




I. 


2. 


Beware, 


__ __ 


Can, 


could, 


May, 


might, 


Must, 


must, 


Ought, 


ought, 


Quoth, 


quoth, 


Shall, 


should, 


Will, 


would, 


Methinks, 


methought, 



3. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 48. AUXILIARY AND PRINCIPAL VERBS. 

Definition 1.— A verb used before any root of some 
other verb, expressing some variation of mode, time, or 
form, is called an auxiliary. 

Definition 2. — The verb before which the auxiliary 
is used, is called a principal verb. 

Specification. — The auxiliaries are shall, will, may, 
can, must, do, and their second roots; have, and its second 
and third roots; am or he, and its second, third, and fourth 
roots. 

Remark 1. — Will, do, have, and am or be, are principal verbs, when 
not followed by another verb, expressed or implied. 

Remark 2. — A limited use of am or be in changing from the ac- 
tive to the passive form of the verb, has been given. (§ 18, § 26.) 
The force of the other auxiliaries shall be pointed out as their use 
is called for. 



§49. GENERAL REMARKS. 



Remark 1. — The first and second root* of the verb are personal, 
and the third and fourth always impersonal. The first root becomes 
impersonal by prefixing to it the preposition to, or the auxiliaries 
shall, will, may, can, must, or do ; the second is never impersonal. 

Remark 2. — The fourth root of a transitive verb is passive, unless 
preceded by the auxiliary have, which changes it from the passive 
to the active voice. 

Remark 3. — The passive voice is formed by prefixing am or be 
and its variations (§ 26) to the fourth root of a transitive verb ; but 
it is the fourth root that is passive, and not the auxiliary. The aux- 
iliary simply implies existence, and nothing more. The doing is 
expressed by the principal verb. 



VARIATIONS MODE. 97 

Remark 4. — The other three roots are always transitive or intransi- 
tive, according as the verb is used transitively or intransitively. 

Remark 5. — The third root of the verb implies a continuation of a 
state or condition, and when preceded by am or be and its variations, 
gives what is called the progressive form of the verb. 

E X A M P L E S . 

They are returning. 

They are reading. 

He is studying grammar. 

They are watching the motions of the bodies, 



§50. VARIATIONS. 

Specification. — Verbs are varied by mode, tense, per- 
son, and number. 

Remark. — Person and number are accidental, and not necessary 
variations of the verb. (§ 26.) Mode and tense are essential varia- 
tions ; that is, they constitute an inseparable element of every verb. 



§51. MODE. 

Definition. — Mode is the manner of being or doing 
expressed by the verb. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Take any example of ordinary conversation to illustrate that we 
use different modes of expression under different circumstances or 
impulses. 

A teacher says to his class: "You have learned this lesson well. 
You can take the next. Study it thoroughly, if you wish to under- 
stand it." Notice, in these propositions, the declaration, " have learn- 
ed ; " the permission or ability, *' can take ; " the command, " study ; " 
the hypothesis, " if you wish; " the impersonal form of the verb, 
" understand." 

9 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Specification. — There are six modes : the Indicative, 
the Potential, the Imperative, the Subjunctive, the Infini- 
tive, and the Participial. 

Remark. — These are all the various modes of expressing being or 
doing by the verb ; but by means of numerous adverbs express- 
ing manner, we have almost an indefinite number of ways of varying 
the mode, so as to express with accuracy the various conceptions of 

our intelligence. 



152, INDICATIVE MODE. 

Definition. — The indicative mode simply declares a 
fact, or asks a question ; or, more properly, expresses af- 
firmation or interrogation without limit. 

EXAMPLES. 

She retires. 

Our cares invreass. 

Time waits for no one. 

I remember the declaration. 

God is on the side of virtue. 

The study of the Bible is a sure relief from corroding cares. 

Fame is the shadow of immortality. 

I heard a sweet and solemn strain. 

Life has its joys. 

The winds are produced by variations of temperature. 

The God of the universe has manifested himself to the world in 

three ways. 
Religion, not science, holds the key to nature's hieroglyphics. 



§53. POTENTIAL MODE. 

Definition. — The potential mode expresses liberty or 
possibility, power or ability, necessity or obligation ; or, 
more properly, expresses an affirmation or interrogation 
limited by the notion of liberty or possibility, power or ahil 
ity, necessity or obligation. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 99 

ftfnwARK 1. — To express the thought designed by the potential 
mode, the auxiliaries may, can, must, shall, will, and their second 
roots, are used. 

J.. May indicates liberty or possibility. 

EXAMPLES. 

You may go. 

You may be sorry for such conduct. 

Possibly I may be there at that time. 

He may find another. 

All may find friends. 

The sinner may be forgiven. 

2. X)un indicates 420 wer or ability . 

E X A M P LE S . 

One man can do the work in a day. 

He can not bear reproof. 

I can not bear his impudence 

They ean read Latin. 

IThey^san talk intrench. 

3. Must indicates necessity or obligation, 

EXAMPLES. 

We must submit to the laws. 

Deacons must be grave. 

A bishop must bear a good report. 

4. Shall and mill, when used to express obligation, belong to the 
potential mode; but when used to foretell, without expressing obli- 
gation, they belong to the indicative mode. In all primary declara- 
tive propositions, and in all unconditional secondary propositions, 
shall in the first person simply foretells, and is in the indicative ; but 
in the second and third persons, it expresses obligation, and hence 
is in the potential. Shall, in hypothetical propositions, -foretells in the 
second and third persons. WM expresses obligation when shall 
lotfecteJls, and foretells when shall expresses obligation. 

EXAMPLES. 

You shall receive your wages. 

He shall pay his debts. 

You shall get your lessons. 

I will go immediately. 

We. will obey your requirements. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Note. — The specification applies to declarative propositions, and 
not to interrogative. Shall and will, arranged in the potential mode, 
in their persons and numbers, stand thus : 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person, I will study, 1st person, We will study, 

2d " Thou shalt study, 2d " You shall study, 

3d " He shall study, 3d " They shall study. 

Note. — The arrangement of shall and will in the indicative mode 
is reserved for another place. 

EXAMPLES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE, 

The contrast may now be considered complete. 

The public morals must be guarded by just statutes. 

Our poor work may perish. 

This monument may moulder away. 

Verily, thou shalt have thy reward. . 

They shall, every one of them, be judged. 

Multitudes may yet rise up and call you blessed. 

I will not join in congratulations on misfortune and disgrace. 

The smoothness of flattery can not save us in this awful crisis. 

They shall be brought to trial immediately. 

She can save herself much trouble by confessing. 

He shall feel the severity of his wicked deeds. 

We must dispel the delusion and darkness. 

England might have stood against the world. 

You can not, my lords, conquer America. 

Our ministers can not interpose with dignity. 

He must create a solitude around his estate. 

The meek in heart shall inherit the kingdom of God. 

EXAMPLES OF THE INDICATIVE AND THE POTENTIAL MODES. 

These principles form a bright constellation. 

I must entertain you with an account of a most singular and inter- 
esting adventure. 
He was a tall and very spare old man. 
I know the whole story. 

My soul kindles with a flame of indignation. 
He felt that poetry was a universal presence. 
Great minds were everywhere his kindred. 
We must make a good use of our time. 
You may gain friends by industry. 
The man of business despises the man of pleasure. 
No man can serve two masters. 
You must depend on your own resources. 
He may yet be glad of such an opportunity. 

A few wild blunders may, for a time, furnish occasions of laughter, 
$q dictionary of a Hying language can be perfect. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 101 

A whole life can not be spent on syntax and etymology. 

The powers of the mind were yet unimpaired. 

He was beautiful and eloquent. 

Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind ; 

Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. 

Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid; 

Pope is always smooth, uniform and gentle. 

Dryden often surpasses expectation ; 

Pope never falls below it. 

Dryden is read with frequent astonishment ; 

Pope with perpetual delight. 



EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Parse all the verbs in the above examples. If, in this 
exercise, the verb has auxiliaries, mention their office. 

The following examples will show how this is to be done : 

" She returned to the throng." 

" They see our wants." 

" The public morals must be guarded by just statutes." 

Returned is an intransitive verb, the second root of the regular 
verb return, returned, returning, returned, indicative mode, and 
agrees with she in the third person, singular; rule. 

See is a transitive verb of the active voice, the first root of the 
irregular verb see, saw, seeing, seen, indicative mode, and agrees with 
they in the third person, plural ; rule. 

Must is an auxiliary verb, implying obligation. 

Be is an auxiliary verb, implying existence. 

Must be guarded is a transitive verb of the passive voice, the fourth 
root of the regular verb guard, guarded, guarding, guarded, poten- 
tial mode, and agrees with morals in the third person, plural ; rule. 

2. Parse all the substantives. 

3. Analyze every proposition. 

Written and Oral. — Write twelve sentences, six containing verbs 
in the indicative mode, and six containing verbs in the potential 
mode, and then parse and analyze as before. 

Remark 2. — The indicative and potential modes are used in inter- 
rogative propositions, as well as declarative. A few examples of the 
interrogative are subjoined. The student will analyze and parse. 



W2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



EXAMPLES. 

Can you think him capable of so vile a deed T" 

Oan you write ? 

Do you~need my aid ? 

Must we get our bread by the sweat of our- brow*?* 

Are you all present ? . 

Am I my brother's keeper? 

May they prosper in such an enterprise? i 

Are they Israelites £: 

Are all apostles ? 

Are all teachers ? 

©an you deny it? 

Must we not tell the truth ? - 

Art thou ambitious ? 

Dost thou want friends ? 

Are you ignorant of many things ? 

Do temptations surround you ? 

Are you exposed to misery ? 

€&& not good men differ about so-me things? 

Whence comes it, that a small difference in opinion is so apt'tfc* 

make a breach in affection ? 
Can gray hairs make folly venerable ? 

Remark 3. — The use of shall and will, in interrogative propositions, 
should be carefully noticed. 

The same general principle applies in the interrogative as in theL 
declarative, (§ 53, Rem. 1, 4 Particle;) but in the particular uses, the 
following statement must be- regarded : 

Shall, used interrogatively in the potential, inquires the will of the 
party addressed ; in the indicative, it refers to ^M event. The* 
same is true of will used interrogatively. 

Shall, in the first person, may be used in the potential or indicative 
mode ; in the second person, it is always in the indicative ; and in 
the third person, it is always in the potential. 

Will (in interrogative propositions) is never used in the first per- 
son; in the second person, it is always potential; and, in the third 
person, it is potential or indicative. 

The following is the arrangement of shall and will, in the potential* 
mode, in conformity with this remark : 

Shall I study ? Shall we study ? 

Witt thou study ? Will you study ? 

Shall or wild he- st&dy t * Shall or will they study t f 



EXAMPLES. 

Shall I aid you? Will you answer me? 

SJhaU I enforce obedience ? Shall we get the books 2. 



iMroiAiivi; mode. 103 

Remark 4. — The distinction between the indicative and potential 
modes, is not well marked, as every grammarian who thinks for him- 
self will readily perceive. Yet it is a division sanctioned by time, 
and "therefore must not be meddled with." 



§54. IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Definition. — The imperative mode indicates a com- 
mand, an exhortation, or entreaty. 

EXAMPLES. 

Look here. 

Approach me. 

Depart. 

Go in peace. 

Attend well to your own interests. 

Love not the world. 

Incline thy heart unto wisdom. 

Live in peace with all men. 

My son, forget not my law. 

Trust in the Lord with all thy heart. 

Honor the Lord with thy substance. 

Hear the instructions of a father. 

Get wisdom, get understanding. 

Keep thy father's commandixients. 

Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

Apply thy heart unto instruction. 

Speak not in the ears of a fool. 

Remove not the old land-mark. 

Enter not into the fields of the fatherless. 

Be not among wine-bibbers. 

Put not thyself forth in the presence of the king. 

Stand not in the place of great men. 

Bring forth fruits worthy of repentance. 

Hold thy peace, and come out of him. 

Rise up and walk. 

Be thou of good comfort. 

Go thy way for the present. 

Drive those rebels from the land. 

Purge the city. g 

Live to do good* 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Remark. — In imperative propositions, the subject is usually sup- 
pressed in ordinary conversation or discourse ; but in highly animated 
oratory or conversation, the subject is frequently expressed. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Analyze all the examples given as illustrations of the 
imperative mode. 

2. Parse every verb, as last 4fc*ected. (§ 53.) 

3. Parse every noun and pronoun. 

Written and Oral — Write twelve sentences containing verbs in 
the imperative mode, and then analyze and parse them as above di- 
rected. 

EXAMPLES OF THE INDICATIVE, POTENTIAL, AND IMPERATIVE MODES. 

Man can bore the solid earth. 

Why wouldst thou leave me, oh ! gentle child ? 

Thy home, on the mountains, is bleak and wild. 

Alas ! blind, unfortunate youth, that salute was a last farewell to 

this world. 
Men, brethren, and fathers, hear ye my defense. 
Another grand offence against piety, is rash and vain swearing in 

common discourse. 
The life of every individual may be compared to a river. 
The weapons of our warfare are not carnal. 
The tone and manner of the gentleman's question, forbid that I 

should thus interpret it. 
I throw the challenge of debate at no man's feet. 
Behold the child among his new-born blessings. 
The obligation of respect and affection for parents, never ceases. 
Rouse, ye Romans. Rouse, ye slaves. 
If God be for us, none can be against us. 
I can very well believe it. 
Your globe is small. 
Is knowledge the pearl of price ? 
My country was my idol ; to it, I sacrificed every selfish, every 

endearing sentiment. 
The ocean may roll its waves ; the roaring winds may devastate the 

forest ; the thunders may shake the skies ; the lightnings may pass 

swiftly from cloud to cloud. 
Where may I find him 1 
Keep yourselves in the love of God. 

EXERCISES, 

Oral. — 1. Analyze each of the above examples* 

2, Parse everv verb and substantive* £ 

V 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



105 



§55. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Definition.— The subjunctive mode is a particular form 
of the verb used in expressing a doubtful or contingent 

circumstance or event. 



EXAMPLES. 

I shall return home, in a few days, if my health permit. 

Unless he present his claim at the appointed time, he will surely 

be defeated. 
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Were it possible, I would accompany you. 
Had I the eloquence of a Henry, I would sound the instances of 

my country's wrongs in the ears of my countrymen, till those 

wrongs should be redressed. 

Remark 1. — Examples illustrative of the subjunctive mode, will 
be introduced in a subsequent portion of this work, after the varia- 
tions of time, expressed by the verb, have been sufficiently explained. 

Remark 2. — The author of this work does not make the subjunctive 
mode depend on a conjunction expressing doubt or contingency ; 
such as if, unless, though, or lest. These conjunctions may precede 
the indicative or potential mode; and though they usually precede 
the subjunctive, they are not essential to it, as the last two of the 
above examples will verify. 

Remark 3. — The particular form of the verb, called the subjunc- 
tive, is such as requires the verb to be plural in form, though it is 
singular in signification. 

Remark 4. — This form has been denied by some respectable 
grammarians; but, denied or not, it is in the language; and, if denied, 
its ghost will be constantly rising up before the imagination of one 
who reads much, in the form of "as it were," "were it so," &c. 
And though he may protest that such expressions are ungrammatica], 
yet his own practice will not honor his theory; for if his language, 
in any animated conversation or discourse, for a single hour, should 
be written down, he would find it to contain the precise construc- 
tions against which he protests, 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§56. INFINITIVE MODE, 



Definition. — The infinitive mode is that form of the 
impersonal use of the verb that is usually preceded by 
the preposition to* 

EXAMPLES. 



I came not here to talk. 

He resolved immediately to erect a beautiful statue to time. 

I am glad to see you well. 

I can not venture to think of any project. 

Prepare to live. 

You ought to study faithfully. 

It is time to engage in the business of life. 

We intended to show no partiality. 

They are prepared to defend their rights. 

I intended to accompany you. 

Can you endure to receive such censure ? 

He had determined to devote himself to the ministry. 

fho you wish to go now, or do you design to stay with me ? 

Why do you wish to play a trick upon that man ? 

He is accustomed to find fault with every thing he sees. 

He pretends to think himself very grave. 

Are you able to tell me, sir, what that means ? 

That means, that I do not like to deal with you. 

It would be agreeable for me to know the reasons. 

It is because I am compelled to believe that you are too particular. 

I wonder why your brother has not been able to do his task. 

It was too difficult for a person of his experience to perform. 

Why is your mother accustomed to fret ? 

Sir, may I be permitted to ask where the Earl of B. lives? 

Can you tell me which road I must take to go thither ? 

Remark 1. — The author has not given the usual definition to the 
infinitive mode, because he has deemed such definition extremely 
faulty, in representing the verb in the infinitive as used in an un- 
limited or indefinite manner. Nothing could be more contrary to 
fact, than the impressions conveyed by such language ; the verb in 
the infinitive is as definite, and as limited, as that of any other mode. 
If this is not the fact, then it becomes those who give such indefinite 
definitions to show wherein its unlimitedness consists. True, it is 
not varied by the person and number of its subject ; but this is quite 



Infinitive mode. 107 

mi insufficient reason vvliy it should be called indefinite, unlimited, 
&c. It may be said, that this view would require us to substitute 
some other term in the place of the infinitive. Be it so. The author 
regards the term infinitive as very inappropriate, and has retained 
its use only out of respect to immemorable, though unphilosophical, 
usage. But, in retaining the use of an objectionable term, he would 
put the student on his guard, and would have him assign to it no 
ether meaning than that given in the definition. 

Remark 2.— -The preposition to,- before the infinitive verb, has, by 
many, been called a part of the verb, but without the shadow of 
reason. Some grammarian, in giving bis definition of a preposition, 
makes it a word that connects nouns and pronouns ; presently, he 
finds that a verb is connected to some other word by a preposition, 
and now, to make the whole conform to his erroneous definition, he 
conceives the notion of calling the preposition a part of the verb. 
Then a whole host of grammatic imitators, who rely upon the opinions 
of others, and not upon any fundamental principles of language, chime 
in, M The author reckons himself among those who regard to as con- 
stituting a part of the verb." New t&, used before the infinitive, is 
or is ?iot a part of the verb; if it is a part of the verb, it can be 
shown by an appeal to some well-grounded principles of language, 
that such is the fact ; and, if it is not a part of the verb, the same 
well-grounded principles will show that fact. To principles, then, 
let the appeal be made. 

First — repositions may be combined with words forming deriva- 
tive words, changing the meaning of the primative ; and a preposi- 
tion is never combined with another word, without changing the 
meaning of the word with which it is combined. 

EXAMPLES. 



Run, 


.over-run, 


out-run. 


Sight, 


over-sight, 


in-sight. 


Stand, 


with-stand, 


under-stand, 



Second — Prepositions connect words, showing the relation which 
those words sustain to each other. But a preposition thus used never 
modifies or changes the meaning of the latter word of connection. 
The preposition and the latter word, or a phrase together, change the 
meaning of the former word of connection ; but the preposition has 
its own signification, and its own office to perform, and does not in 
any sense unite with either of the connected words to form a deriva- 
tive, or a compound word. 

To which of these established and conceded principles, shall to be 
referred, when used before the infinitive mode ? To the first ? Then 
it forms a part of the verb, and changes its meaning. No one will 
pretend to sustain such an absurdity. If not to the first, then it is 
embraced in the second. And where else does it belong ? And who. 
but for sustaining a hasty and inconsiderate opinion, would have 
thought ot considering it, in such connection, as a part of the verb? 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 3. — Th ? definition of the infinitive mode, states that it is 
usually preceded by the preposition to. A few verbs take the iif- 
finitive after them, without the preposition. The infinitive, uniformly, 
rejects to when it follows the active voice of bid, let, hear, see, and 
-feel; usually when it follows make, need, or dare; and occasionally 
when it follows find, have, observe, behold, know, tuatch, and some 
others; but if they are used in the passive, the preposition must be 
retained before the infinitive. 



EXAMPLES. 

Let me go. 

Bid him call his brother. 

I heard him mention the affair. 

See the boys jump. 

Feel it start. 

Need he return ? 

You must make him do it. 

He dare not do any such thing. 

I will have him bring the trunk. 

Remark 4. — A verb in the infinitive mode, in analyzing, is calljd 
an infinitive modifier. 

Specification.— ^-Infinitive modifiers are divided into 
seven classes : intransitive, intransitive post adjective, in- 
transitive post substantive, transitive of the active voice, 
transitive of the passive voice, transitive post adjective 
of the passive voice, and transitive post substantive of the 
passive voice. 

Remark. — It is not necessary particularly to define these terms 
here, since they have already been defined in relation to predications, 
and they will be used in precisely the same sense here as they ar@ 
under that head. (§ 32.) 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) It is time to retire. 

The trees begin to blossom. 
We ought to improve. 
They ask us to write soon. 

(2.) They intend to be faithful. 

We know him to be distrustful. 

They purpose to be honest. 

The congregation seemed to be attentive. 



INFINITIVE MODE, 109 

(3.) We think her to be a very dutiful child. 
Ele seems to be an honest man. 
They appeared to be our friends. 
We do not intend to become bankrupts. 

(4.) You should not engage to do that work. 
The children went to get their baskets. 
The principles of democracy ought to secure the universal 

sympathies of mankind. 
The people are not ready to reduce these principles to 

practice. 

(5.) They fancy him to be deranged. 

He does not want to be intruded upon* 
They appear to be forsaken. 
The party hates to be defeated. 

(.6.) She was anxious to be called handsome* 
He wished to be thought witty. 

(7.) He wanted to be elected president. 
He is not fit to be chosen librarian. 

Remark 5. — The adjective following the intransitive or passive in- 
finitive, modifies the subject of the infinitive; and the substantive 
similarly placed, modifies, in like manner, the subject, being explan- 
atory of it. 

RULE OF PUNCTUATION. 

When the infinitive is separated from the word upon which it im- 
mediately depends, or when it separates words which have a close 
dependence upon each other, it should, with its modifiers, be set 
off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

To tell you the truth, I was tremendously scared. 

To strengthen our virtues, God bids us trust in him. 

A man. to be successful, must attend well to his business. 

He needs, to carry on his business, a man of economical habits. 

Remark 6.— Let it be remembered, that every verb has a subject, 
expressed or implied. The verb invariably expresses the being or 
doing of some person or thing, and hence describes, in some sense, 
its state or condition. Every verb, whether personal or impersonal, 
must, therefore, relate to some noun or pronoun expressed or im- 
plied. Hence, in parsing the infinitive, we may apply the following 

rule: 

The infinitive mode describes the state or condition of its subject, 
and is Usually preceded by the preposition to. 
10 



HO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rkmark 7. — While the infinitive mode describes its subject, it may 
be connected to some other word in the proposition, by the propo- 
sition, and thus become an immediate modi tier of any word with 
which to connects it. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. State the subject of each infinitive in the preceding 
exampl ■». 

2. Parse the infinitive and other verbs* 

3. Analyze. 

Written. — Write as many more examples. 



§57. PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Definition. — The participial mode is that form of the 
impersonal use of the verb, that is not, necessarily, pre- 
ceded by the preposition to. 

EXAMPLE. 
Obtaining his passport, he immediately left the country. 

In this sentence there are two verbs, expressing different particu- 
lars of the same person. 

The first verb, obtaining, describes the state of the pronoun he, 
and expresses a fact, but does not agree with the pronoun in person 
and number. 

The second verb, left, describes another state of the same pronoun, 
expresses a fact, and agrees with the pronoun in person and number. 

Rkmark 1. — Let it be observed, furthermore, that the same thought 
can be expressed by distinct propositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Having sold his patrimony, he engaged in merchandise. 

2. When he had sold his patrimony, he engaged in merchandise. 

1. Having alwavs loved and practiced virtue, he will be happy. 

2. Because he always loved and practiced virtue, he will be happy. 



IM&TtCIPIAL MODE. Ill 



1. The General arriving, the excitement subsided. 

2. When the General arrived, the excitement subsided. 

1. The culprit escaping, the officers pursued him. 

2. As the culprit escaped, the officers pursued him* 

1. The measure being finally effected, the repeal was hailed with 

universal joy. 

2. Inasmuch as the measure was finally carried, the repeal was 

hailed with universal joy. 

1. He, leaving his profession, seemed content to roam. 

2. When he had left his profession, he seemed content to roam. 

1. Having obtained an extensive assortment of goods, I am now 

prepared to supply my customers with every variety of do- 
mestic goods, at the very lowest prices. 

2. Since I have obtained an extensive assortment of goods, I am 

now prepared to supply my customers with every variety 
of domestic goods, at the very lowest prices. 

1. Having explained these powers, we will explain the principles 
of their action. 

&. As we have explained these powers, we will explain the prin- 
ciples of their action. 

1. Montezuma, having bribed his judges, called the delinquents to 

a strict account for yielding to the temptation. 

2. When Montezuma had bribed his judges, he called the delin- 

quents to a strict account for yielding to the temptation. 

1. He, having praised his God, died in peace. 

2. He praised his God, and died in peace. 

1. Knowing that he possessed superior powers, he feared not to 

enter upon the argument. 

2. Because he knew that he possessed superior powers, he feared 

not to enter upon the argument. 

1. Having been detected, he fled. 

2. Because he had been detected, he fled. 

L Having secured peace, he was called home, 

2. When ke had secured peace, he was called home. 

L Effecting his object, he resigned his commission. 

2. When he had effected his object, he resigned his commission. 



Remark 2. — In speaking of the particular form of the verb now 
under consideration, it may be called the participle, as a mere name: 
but in parsing, it should be parsed the same as any other verb, and 
called the participial mode. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Remark 3.— The participial and infinitive modes are very closely 
allied to each other. They are formed differently, as will appear 
when we come to treat of their tenses. They also differ in this par- 
ticular, that the infinitive, being usually preceded by the preposition 
to, may be connected to almost any part of speech, as an immediate 
modifier, while yet, in its adjective character, it describes its subject ; 
whereas the participial may, or may not, be preceded by a preposi- 
tion, depending on the precise office to be performed by it. When 
not preceded by a preposition, it describes its subject, standing in 
the proposition to which the participial belongs ; but when preceded 
by a preposition, it may be connected to almost any part of speech 
as an immediate modifier, while yet, in its adjective character, it de- 
scribes its subject. 

Remark 4. — The use of the participle secures brevity of expres- 
sion, else its use would never be called for. It dispenses with the 
use of the conjunction, and frequently avoids the repetition of the 
subject. When the repetition of the subject is avoided, the participle, 
with the words depending upon it, is equivalent to the predicate 
of a proposition ; yet it can not constitute a distinct proposition with- 
out introducing its subject in connection with it, and changing from 
the impersonal to the personal verb. When, on the other hand, the 
repetition of the subject is not avoided, the participle, with its sub- 
ject and their dependencies, is equivalent to a dependent proposition, 
yet it lacks the element of completion, which can only be secured 
by the use of the personal verb. By using the conjunction, the per- 
sonal verb will be required, and this will change the participial 
phrase or modifier to a proposition. 



Remark 5. — The conjunctions most frequently required in making 
this change, are as, and, if, while, when, since, because, and the con- 
junctive pronouns who and which. And often a number of dependent 
propositions can be expressed with a single proposition and parti- 
cipial modifiers, by dispensing with some one or more of the above 
conjunctions. 

Remark 6. — In analyzing, the participle, with its modifiers, is to 
be called a participial modifier. Of these, there are seven kinds, as 
the following examples will show 

Remark 7. — The adjective or substantive following an intransitive 
participle, is to be regarded as a modifier of the subject. 

EXERCISE I . 

1. Ascertain the subject of the participle in each of the following 
examples. 

2. Parse each participle. Thus : Retiring, (from the first example,) 
is an intransitive verb ; the third root of the regular verb retire, re- 
tired, retiring, retired ; participial mode, and describes its subject 
we. Here apply the following 



PARTICIPIAL MODE. 113 



rule: 



A verb in the participial mode, describes the state or condition of 
its subject. 

3. Change the participial modifier into a proposition, in conformity 
with the models given in remark first. 

4. Analyze and parse the other verbs, and also the substantives. 

5. Give the reason for the punctuation, as expressed in the foilow- 



rule: 

A verb in the participial mode, separated from its subject, or in- 
terrupting the close dependence of words, must, with its modifiers, 
be set off by a comma. 

(1.) EXAMPLES OF INTRANSITIVE PARTICIPIAL MODIFIERS. 

Returning from the assembly, we engaged in a conversation. 

Peter saw him walking. 

He, reflecting, paused. 

The Queen, having absconded, escaped execution. 

She, having been there, can describe the situation. 

Hoping for the best, we passed ob. 

Having determined on victory, they moved forward with great im- 
petuosity. 

Occupying an elevated position, we had a view of an extended 
range of country. 

Sharing in our hospitality, they soon became apparently happy. 

Waking at an early hour, we arose and prepared for our journey. 

Returning by the way of Rochester, we found better accommoda- 
tions. 

Sailing along the coast for some days, we effected a landing. 

Refusing to hear any thing from us, he continued his harangue. 

The first work of the teacher, preparing to go into school., is with 
himself. 

They passed from court to court, now going up the broad flight 
of steps, now walking under lofty arches, now traversing a paved 
and ornamented arena. 

Having returned from the grave, my soul cries, "O, bury me 
alone ! " 

(2.) EXAMPLES OF THE INTRANSITIVE POST ADJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL 
MODIFIERS. 

Being cautious, I avoided the danger. 

Being weak, I was unable to prosecute my task. 

She, buiifi obedient, obtained universal favor. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

They, having been studious, obtained the prize. 

They, being industrious, pleased their employers. 

He, running fastest, obtained the prize. 

The night, being dark, rendered it impossible to land. 

She, laboring hard, accomplished her object. 

He, leaping high, scaled the wall. 

The fruit, being ripe, was gathered in great abundance. 

The waters, being deep, prevented their escape. 

Each scholar, being anxious, was well prepared, and did honor tcr 

himself and school. 
Being happy in the spirit-world, could the spirit welcome sisteb 

spiritless professions of respect? 

(3.) EXAMPLES OF INTRANSITIVE POST SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPIAL 
MODIFIERS. 

Having been a soldier, he loves to recount the scenes of battle. 
He, having become a useful man, was much respected. 
She, loving herself supremely, sought not the happiness of o the re* 
He, having been a farmer, could easily find employment. 

(4.) EXAMPLES OF TRANSITIVE PARTICIPIAL MODIFIERS OF THE. AC- 
TIVE VOICE. 

Having obtained our passport, we left immediately. 

Having secured the friendship of the Sultan, we were in no fear 
of molestation. 

Gaining the main road, we regarded ourselves as out of danger. 

The boys are at home, reading their books- 
Having studied his profession most thoroughly, he was necessarily 
successful. 

Having written the letter, I sealed it. 

It represents him r rending open his wounds. 

Esteeming themselves wise, they became fools. 

I observed him noting down, even the little wild flowers. 

Having completed his discovery, Hudson descended the stream. 

In the mean while, the rest of their days were passed in the ser- 
vice of their lord, accompanying him in his excursions, servifng 
him at table, and pouring out his drinks. 

(5.) EXAMPLES OF TRANSITIVE PARTICIPIAL MODIFIERS OF THE 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

Devoted to the principles of virtue, we can not sustain such an act. 
Nurtured in the lap of luxury, he soon became a victim of vicious 

indulgences. 
The stream, not yet limited, spread over sand-bars, tufted with 

copses of willow. 
His soldiers, crowned with laurels, followed him. 
It is the statue of Cato ! carried before the victor's chariot. 
The sense of justice in children, collected from principles of all 

kiodSi needs contirnial correction,. 



PARTICIPIAL MODE.. IJrS 

The grand facts of nature, collected and classified in the various 
departments of mathematical and physical science, would ever 
be attractive subjects to the young mind. 

Flanked by hi&fe of considerable elevation, on the east, the city 
filled the whole plain. 

Corrupted by early associations, he became a misanthropist. 

Forced from home and all its pleasures, disappointed, and disheart- 
ened by cruel public opinion, he became a maniac. 

Exhausted by continual exertion, he, at last, expired, lamented by 
none. 

Exiled, and deprived of liberty, he terminated his own careen 

Being arrested, he will be trie«K 

Having been suspected, he feared all. 

Being dethroned, he will seek his own pleasure. 

(6.) EXAMPLES OF 'J HE PASSIVE POST ADJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL 
MODIFIERS. 

Having been honest, no one questioned his integrity. 
Having been called generous, he now became exceedingly par- 
simonious. 

qi.) EXAMPLES OF THE PASSIVE POST SUBSTANTIVE PARTICIPIAL 
MODIFIERS. 

Being esteemed a good counsellor, he soon obtained an extensive 

practice. 
Being esteemed an excellent linguist, he was elected professor of 

Hebrew. 
Being called a good teacher, he had a plenty of scholars*. 

EXERCISE II. 

The second class of examples given, are those in which a repeti- 
tion of the subject of the participial mode is not avoided. 

The following explanation will be sufficient to enable the scholar 
to understand this use of the participle: 

The subject of the verb is introduced as if to construct a complete 
proposition, and then, by using the impersonal form of the verb, in- 
stead of the personal, it is left incomplete. The subject of the verb 
is in the absolute case ; the participle describes it, and the phrase is 
equivalent to a proposition, while the conjunction is avoided. The 
scholar should go through with these exercises in the same order 
as last directed ; then parse all the nouns in the absolute case; ob- 
serving that all the examples of the absolute case hitherto introduced 
into this work, have been by direct address ; those now introduced 
are in the absolute with a participle, the whole phrase in which they 
are the principal, or it may be the only words, being an absolute 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 

The ship immediately sinking, all on board perished. 

My brother having returned, I took great pleasure in his society 

Providence smiling upon his labors, he soon found himself in the 

enjoyment of competence. 
The next day being rainy, we stayed at our hotel. 
Life being encumbered with an innumerable multiplicity of cares, 

I was much depressed in spirits. 
The traveling being bad, we delayed our journey. 
The night being dark, we did not proceed. 
The young lady having died, we buried her. 
Peter knocking at the gate, a damsel came to hearken. 
The sun having set, all nature was silent. 
The moon appearing, we again proceeded. 
The fire going out, we were destitute of hot air. 
Our apparatus being injured, we can not proceed. 
The weather being unpleasant, we remained within. 
The compass being lost, we knew not which way to steer. 
The proviso being rejected, the Senate adjourned. 
The people being weary, the assembly was dismissed. 
The walk being icy, we had much difficulty in proceeding. 



EXERCISE III. 

Let the scholar now commence and take each example, in the 
above exercise, of the participle of the active voice, and change it 
to the passive ; and each of the passive, and change it to the active. 
In changing from the active to the passive voice, it will frequently be 
necessary to use the subject in the absolute case. 

The following examples will sufficiently indicate the plan to be 
pursued : 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Leaving his native land, he soon found himself on the broad 

ocean. 

2. His native land being left, he soon found himself on the broad 

ocean. 

1. Resisting the influence of vice, he became a man of stern virtue. 

2. The influence of vice being resisted, he became a man of stern 

virtue. 

1. For3aking his parents, he became a wanderer in a land of 

strangers. 

2. His parents being forsaken, he became a wanderer in a land of 

strangers. 



PARTICIPIAL MODE. 117 

1. Burying every terror, the grave is a glorious retreat. 

2. Every terror being buried, the grave is a glorious retreat. 

1. The prison doors being opened, the watch was terrified. 

2. Opening the prison doors, the watch was terrified. 

1. A great stone being sealed at the door, they set a watch. 

2. Sealing a great stone at the door, they set a watch. 

1. Setting a watch, they supposed the sepulchre was made sure. 

2. A watch being set, they supposed the sepulchre was made sore. 

1. These words being said, he gave up the ghost. 

2. Saying these words, he gave up the ghost. 

1. He being stripped, they put on him a scarlet robe. 

2. Stripping him, they put on him a scarlet robe. 

1. Forgiving his enemies, he was forgiven of God. 

2. His enemies being forgiven, he was forgiven of God. 

1. His brother being slain, he paid the penalty of the law. 

2. Slaying his brother, he paid the penalty of the law. 

1 . Books being studied alone, he knew but little of human nature, 

2. Studying books alone, he knew but little of human nature. 



EXERCISE IV. 

Change each of the following compound sentences to a simple 
sentence, by changing from the personal to the impersonal form of 
the verb, and rejecting the conjunction. The models given will be 
a sufficient guide : 

1. I labored hard, and obtained a considerable amount of property. 

2. Laboring hard, I obtained a considerable amount of property. 

1. When you arrive at home, you will have leisure to write to us, 

2. Arriving at home, you will have leisure to write to us. 

1. I saw his distress, and went to his relief. 

2. Seeing his distress, I went to his relief. 

1. As he was affected by this spectacle of misery, he proffered re- 

lief. 

2. Affected by this spectacle of misery, he proffered relief. 

He was elected by this unexpected good fortune, and returned 

home. 
He saved carefully the fruits of his labor, and was enabled tQ 

purchase a farm. 
I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. 



118 



ENftfASH ^RAMMAt. 



As the child grows older, he becomes capable of more disinterested 
affection. 

They esteemed themselves wise, and became fools. 

When we had baffled all the menaces of foreign power, we neg- 
lected to establish among ourselves a government that could in- 
sure domestic vigor and stability. 

Tkey bravely bled for liberty, and were honored hy their xiountry- 
m en. 

He immediately proceeded to New-York, and made all necessary 
arrangements. 

They sold their carriage, and returned on foot. 

She there planted the tree of despotism, and watered it with the 
fears of her subjects. 

Ireland struggles to be free, and defies the powers of the Queen. 

Hope brightens, and the soul lavishes in anticipated joys. 

The banners were unfurled, and the shout of "liberty" rung 
through the camp. 

The morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted 
Cor joy. 

He will come, and tell us all things. 

I consequently made my arrangements, and visited the falls. 

He rejected the proposal, and spoke at length for freedom. 

He moved an amendment, and defended it with a stirring appeal. 

He obtained tiae floor, a&d. the .Senate adjourned. 

Vtie Lord uplifted his awfdl hand, and chained yoa to die shore. 

Ciod said, Let there be light, and there was light. 

He was blind, and reposed in the hospital. 

He despises the widow's sighs, and mocks at the orphan's tears. 

We saw your shame, and hated you before. 

They were offended at the appointment, and rebelled. 

Peter stays at home, and spends his time in study. 

Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope. 

The King deceived the people, and became an object of universal 
hatred. 

We sigh for change, and spend our lives for nought. 

The thunders roar, and shake the earth from shore to shore. 

Elvira passed from earth, and yielded hear .place to others. 

Susan goes to school, and pursues her studies diligently. 

The lad was bribed, and run away from his father. 

William stays by the way, and spends his time at play. 

Pears ripen in the fall, and afford us a rich repast. 

Spring returned, and flowers bestowed. 

Qwm sweeps the heavens, and challenges the starry host. J 



REMARKS ON THE PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

The participle has been defined, u A word participating the pro- 
<perties of a verb, and also of an adjective." This gives the scholar 
the impression, that the participle is an adjective and a verb at the 
same time, and that it is distinguished by its adjective character from 
the verb that agrees in its person and number with its nominative 



rAKTIClPML MODE. 119 

This is a gross imposition upon the intellect. The participle is, in 
no seyise whatever, any more an adjective than any other form of the 
verb. 

Every verb in the language is an adjective, and this has been as- 
sumed in this work, not in accordance with any new theories, of 
witbanew and doubtful application of old theories, but in conformity 
with well-established principles of language. 

Why, indeed, in the impersonal form of the verb an adjective, any 
more than in the personal? Or, why does not prefixing the prepo- 
sition to to the personal form, by which the personal is rendered 
impersonal, change it to an adjective ? 

The variation of person and number is an accidental circumstance 
of the verb, and not an essential characteristic of it. Explain the 
verb as we may, every element that constitutes the verbal character 
of the personal verb, belongs equally to the impersonal. If the 
statement be not true, then why has not some author shown wherein 
the participle, as he pleases to call it, differs from the \erhT To say 
that a participle is "a word that participates in the properties of a 
verb and also of an adjective," without specifying precisely in what 
particular it is a verb, and also in what particular it is an adjective, 
and then in what particular it differs from those parts of speech, re 
sheer nonsense. And this specification, for the unmatured, should be 
something more than a mere assertion. It sfaoukl be sustained by 
clear and simple illustrations, showing, beyond all doubt, to any one 
who can and will think, that there is a substantial reason for the dis- 
tinction. 

Let any scholar who argues that the participle has, in any sense, 
an adjective signification, that does not belong to the infinitive mode 
or the personal verb, show it in the following 



EXAMPLES: 

I saw the horse run. 

I saw the horse running. 

He was a man, beloved for his noble virtues. 

He was a man, who was beloved for his noble virtues. 

My friend, having relied on me for aid, did not try to aid himself. 
My friend, who had relied on me for aid, did not try to aid him- 
self. J 

It may be replied, that admitting the position now insisted upon, 
we ought to reject the term participle from the nomenclature of gram- 
mar. Granted. The author has retained the term, as he did the in- 
finitive, out of respect to customary use, but he hopes that he has so 
guarded its use as not to deceive the scholar. He is not very tena- 
cious about terms, and does not feel disposed to take the responsi- 
bility oi making many changes; yet he is fully persuaded that the 
science of grammar would be aided by adopting some term, that 
should embrace the infinitive and participle under one head. 



1&9 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



§5 8. TENSE. 

Definition 1.— Tense is the variation of the verb in 
relation to time. 

Definition 2.— -^ Time is a measured portion of infi- 
nite duration.'' 

Remark %. — Time is naturally distinguished as present, past, and 
future; and the verb has variations of form to express these general 
divisions. 

The first root of the verb is employed to express present time ; 
the second, to express past; and the first, preceded by shall or will, 
denoting futurity, to express the future. 

Remark 2. — The fourth root implies a completion of being or do- 
ing — implies past time ; but when preceded by the auxiliary have, 
denoting present time, the tense of the two is called present perfect; 
preceded by had, the second root of have, denoting past time, the 
tense is called the past perfect ; preceded by shall 'have, or will have, 
the tense is called the future perfect. 

Specification. — Hence there are six tenses : present, 
past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future per- 
fect. 

Remark 3. — Let it not be understood, that we have forms of the 
verb which express time with unvaried precision, but only that these 
forms express it in a general sense. Nor are all of these tenses 
found in all the modes. The correctness of this remark will appear 
as we proceed. 



§ 59. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

Specification. — The indicative mode has six. tenses. 
Definition 1. — Present tense denotes present time. 

E X A M TLBS. 
We waiit you immediately. They are consumed. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 121 

This tense is formed — 

1. From llie first root of the verb. 

E X A MPL.ES. 

I love. We love, 

Thou lovest, You love, 

He loves, They love. 

2. By prefixing do to the fust root of the verb, to ren- 
der the expression errrphatic. 

EXAMPLES. 

I do love, We do love, 

Thou dost love, You do love, 

He does love, They do love. 

3. By prefixing am, art, is, and are, variations of be, to 
the third root giving the progressive form. 

EXAMPLES, 

I am- loving, We are loving, 

Thou art loving, You are loving, 

lie is loving, They are loving. 

4. By prefixing the same variations of be to the fourth 
root giving the passive voice. 

EXAMPLE S. 

T am loved, We are loved, 

Thou art loved, You are loved, 

lie is loved, They are loved* 

EXEIICISES. 

Oral or Written.— Express each of the following verbs in the 
present tense, in accordance with each method of formation;^ 



read, 


hold, 


advance, 


bear, 


give. 


study, 


ohserve, 


demand, 


employ, 


receive, 


fall, 


supply, 


suspect, 


expect, 


return, 


fas' ; ion, 


collect, 


defy, 


report, 


thank, 


fasten, 


correct, 


proceed. 


a*k, 


walk, 



1) 



122 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 2. — The past tense denotes past time. 

EXAMPLES. 

He stopped. They returned. 

Felix trembled. Washington retreated. 

The earth quaked. It proceeded. 

It is formed — 

1. From the second root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I loved, We loved, 

Thou lovedst, You loved, 

He loved, They loved. 

2. By prefixing did, the second root of do, to the first 
root. 

EXAMPLES. 

1 did love, We did love, 

Thou didst love, You did love, 

He did love, They did love. 

3. By prefixing the variations was, wast, and were, of 
the verb be, to the third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I was loving, We were loving, 

Thou wast loving, You were loving, 

He was loving, They were loving. 

4. By prefixing the same variations of be, to the fourth 
root. \ 

EXAMPLES. 

I was loved, We were loved, 

Thou wast loved, You were loved, 

He was loved, They were loved. 

EXERCISE. 

Express each of the verbs in the last list, in the present tense, in 
accordance with each method of formation. 






TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 123 

Remark. — If it be asked, how we know that in the passive voice 
the fourth root is used rather than the second, since in all regular 
Jrerbs the second and fourth roots are of the same form, the answer 
Is, tliat in irregular verbs, when these roots may be of different 
forms, we find that the second root never admits an auxiliary before 
It, and the fourth root is never used without an auxiliary, except in 
the participial mode ; and the conclusion is, that what is true of the 
irregular verb, is also, in this respect, true of the regular. 

Definition 3. — The future tense denotes future time. 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall go to-morrow. He will come. 

J3eath will follow. They wili start. 

This tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing the auxiliary shall or will to the first 

1P©Ot. 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall love, We shaulov« 9 

Thou wilt love, You will love, 

He will love, They will love. 

2. By prefixing be, preceded by shall or will, to the 
tlhird root 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall be loving, We shall be loving, 

Thou wilt be loving, You will be loving, 

He will be loving, They will be loving. 

3. By prefixing be, preceded by shall or will, to the 
Iburth root, 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall be loved, . We shall be loved, 

Thou wilt be loved, You will be loved, 

He will be loved, They will be loved, 

EXERCISES. 

Oral. — 1. Express each of the verbs in the last list, in the future 
*tense, in awnrdmwe with each method of formation. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. State the tense of each of the verbs in the following sentences. 
' 3. Parse the verbs. 

4. Parse the substantives. 

5. Analyze each sentence 

We are exposed to evil. 

They wanted your advice. 

She turned the reply to good advantage. 

He will do right. 

We shall depend on you for support. 

They will play well their part. 

They are preparing for any emergency. 

You are bound to comply. 

He noilsuited the man. 

He will be inclined to favor your plans. 

I shall be disappointed if they do not return. 

They will be exercising their skill in music. 

They impaired their health. 

He is fixing his lines. 

I shall be doing my duty. 

Parents are responsible for the correct education of their children. 

All will be involved in the same difficulty. 

Definition 4. — The present perfect tense denotes the 
completion of what is affirmed as having taken place 
within some period of time not yet fully past. 

Remark. — The reason for applying the term, present perfect, to 
this construction, is this : the affirmation represents the entire com- 
pletion of something, hence perfect ; but the time in which the thing 
has been done, is not entirely past, some portion of it being 7iow f 
nence present. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have learned my lessons this day. 

He has completed his task this morning. 

I have accomplished a reconciliation of the difference. 

They have feared the penalty of the law. 

This tense is formed — - 

1. By prefixing have to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have loved, We have loved, 

Thou hast loved. You have loved, 

He has loved, They have loved. 



TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MODE. 125 

2. By prefixing been, preceded by have, to the third 
i ->ot. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have been loving, We have been loving, 

Thou hast been loving, You have been loving, 

He has been loving, " They have beeu loving. 

3. By prefixing been, preceded by have, to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I have been loved, We have been loved, 

Thou hast been loved, You have beeu loved, 

He has beeu loved, They have been loved. 

EXERCISES. 

Oral.— 1. Express each of the verbs in the list, following the pre- 
sent tense, in the present perfect tense, in accordance with each 
method of formation. 

2. State the tense of each verb in the following sentences. 

3. Analyze each sentence. 

4. Parse each verb and substantive. 

They have done the business. 

The bird has flown. 

The ocean was covered with foam. 

All nature has been rejoicing. 

The surge impelled, me on a rugged coast. 

Yon will labor for your own support. 

He has been influenced by wrong motives. 

He has been instructed to offer terms of settlement. 

They are wanting in common honesty, 

Your influence has been increasing. 

He has paid his debts. 

We shall be prepared to accompany you. 

The students have been very industrious. 

The world has been ruled by passion. 

They have been watching us for some time 

I have kept my promise. 

He has laid no claims on me. 

Frequent practice will make an expert artist. 

Your prospects have been growing brighter. 

The confidence of community has been misplaced. 

Every age has produced its men of distinction. 

Our favors will be bestowed where they will be appreciated. 



lE€s ENGLISH GiiAMMAKr. 

Definition 5.— The past perfect tense denotes the- 
completion of what his been affirmed at or before some- 
past time mentioned. 

EXAMPLES, 

He bad arrived before I left. 

They had made all their preparations in haste. 

I had written till ten in the evening. 

The Secretary had been negligent, and was censured. 

This tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing had, the second root of have, to the 
fourth root. 

E X A M P L E S . 

I had loved, We had loved, 

Thou hadst loved, Yon had loved, 

He had loved, They had loved. 

2. By prefixing heen, preceded by had, to the third 
root, 

EX A MPL ES. 

Phai¥ feeen loving, We had been loving. 

Thou hadst been loving, Y<>n had been loving, 

He had been loving, They had been loving. 

0. By prefixing bcen } preceded by had, to the fourth 
root. 

E X A MPLES. 

I' Had been loved, We had been loved, 

Thou hadst been loved, You had been loved. 

He had been loved, They had been loved. 

E X E It C I S E S . 

1, Express each of the verbs in the list, following the present 
tense, in the past perfect, in accordance with each, method of form- 
ation , 



TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MODE. 127 

2. State the tense of eacli of the verbs in the following sentences. 

3. Analyze each sentence. 

4. Parse each verb and substantive. 

We had intended to prevent his introduction under such circum- 
stances. 
All things had been provided for his journey. 
We had hoped for better influences. 
We had been advising him to take a different course. 
They obeyed the summons. 

The influence of that society had been widely felt. 
The impressions on my mind were derived from what I saw. • 
We had failed in our plans. 
We are advised to retire from business. 
All have been doing well. 
The public had been deceived. 
The proprietors will be worsted in that suit. 
The books are doing much injury. 
We had been engaged in the sports of the day. 
The character of most men is formed in very early life. 

Definition 6. — The future perfect tense denotes what 
is to take place at or before some future time mentioned* 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall have completed my task by the close of school. 
They will have finished the w^ork before you arrive* 

This tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing shall have or will have to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLE Sv 

I shall have loved, We shall have loved, 

Thou wilt have loved, You will have loved, 

He will have loved, They will have loved. 

2. By prefixing been, preceded by shall have or will 
have, to the third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall have been reading, We shall have been reading, 

Thou wilt. have been reading, You will have been reading, 
He will have been reading, They will have been reading. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. By prefixing been, preceded by shall have or will 
have, to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I shall have been loved, We shall have been loved, 

Thou wilt have been loved, You will have been loved, 
He will have been loved, They will have been loved. 

EXERCISES. 

,1. Express each of the verbs in the list, following the present 
tense, in the future perfect tense, in accordance with each method 
of formation. 

2. Mention the tense of each of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences. 

3. Analyze each sentence. 

4. Parse each verb and substantive. 

You will have learned the conclusion of the whole affair in season 

to answer me. 
They are not wanting in dignity. 
It has broken down the otherwise impassible barrier. 
The discovery of the polarity of magnetized iron, insignificant as 
it doubtless appeared at the time, has, nevertheless, changed the 
face of the world. 

The gloom of error's night 

Has long oppressed our race, 
And superstition's bliglit, 
In every age we trace ; 
But glorious science lifts the veil — 
Exalts the soul — forbids its wail. 
No more the voice of Friendship shall beguile ; 

No more the mother on her infant smile. 
Whatsoever European experience had developed, had been offered 

to man in America. 
The high and divine beauty which is loved without effeminacy, is 

that which is found in combination with the human will. 
Does not the New World clothe his form with her palm grovea and 
savannahs. 



§ 60. TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

Specification. — The potential mode has four tenses : 
the present, past, present perfect, and past perfect. 



TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 129 

L The present tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing may, can, must, shall, or will, to the 
first root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I may love, We may lave, 

Thou mayest love, You may love, 

He may love, They may love. 

2. By prefixing be, preceded by any one of the last 
auxiliaries mentioned, to the third root. 



EXAMPLES. 

I may he writing, We may he writing, 

Thou mayest be writing, You may be writing, 

He may be writing, They may be writing. 

3. By prefixing be, preceded as before, to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I may be loved, We may be loved, 

Thou mayest be loved, You may be loved, 

He may be loved, They may be loved. 

EXERCISE. 

Express each of the verbs following the indicative, present, in the 
potential mode, present tense, in accordance with each method of 
formation. 

II. The past tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing might, could, would, should, or must, 
to the first root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might love, We might love, 

Thou mightest love, You might love, 

He might love, They might love. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. By prefixing be, preceded by any one of the last 
auxiliaries mentioned, to the third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might be writing, We might be writing, 

Thou mightest be writing, You might be writing, 

He might be writing, They might be writing. 

3. By prefixing be, preceded as before, to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might be loved, We might be loved, 

Thou mightest be loved, You might be loved, 

He might be loved, They might be loved. 

EXERCISE. 

Express each of the verbs in the list before used, in the potential 
mode, past tense, in accordance with each method of formation. 

III. The present perfect tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing liave, preceded by may, can, or must, 
to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I may have loved, We may have loved, 

Thou mayest have loved, You may have loved, 

He may have loved, They may have ioved. 

2. By prefixing have been, preceded as before, to the 
third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I may have been reading. We may have been reading, 

Thou mayest have been reading, You may have been reading, 
He may have been reading, They may have been reading, 

3. By prefixing have been, preceded as before, to the 
fourth root. 



TENSES OF THE POTEi\TlAL MODE. 131 

EXAMPLES. 

I may have been loved, We may have been loved, 

Thou mayest have been loved, You may have been loved, 
He may have been loved, They may have been loved. 

EXERCISE. 

Express each of the verbs in the list before used, in the present 
perfect tense, in accordance with each method of formation. 

IV. The past perfect tense is formed — 

1. By prefixing have, preceded by might, could, would, 
should, or must, to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might have loved, We might have loved, 

Thou rnightest have loved, You might have loved, 

He might have loved, They might have loved. 

2. By prefixing have been, preceded as before, to the 
third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might have been reading, We might have been reading, 

Thou rnightest have been reading, You might have been reading, 
He might have been reading, They might have been reading. 

3. By prefixing have been, preceded as before, to the 
fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might have been loved, We might have been loved, 

Thou rnightest have been loved, You might have been loved, 
He might have been loved, They might have been loved. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Express each of the verbs in the list previously used, ifi ae* 
cordance with each method of formation. 

2. Mention the tense of the verb in each of the following exam- 
ples, stating how it is formed, and the use of each auxiliary in the 
formation. Thus — censured, in the first example, is the fourth root 
if the verb, passive voice ; been is an auxiliary, indicating existence, 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

fourth root ; have is an auxiliary, indicating perfect tense, first root ; 
might is an auxiliary, indicating potential mode, second root, hence 
indicating past time. The past tense, joined with the perfect, gives 
the past perfect. 

EXAMPLES. 

I might have been severely censured, 

They had determined on a revolt. 

Theymay have been discovered. 

His father can not be grieved with him. 

I might have congratulated him on his return. 

I shall speak my sentiments freely. 

I know not what course others may take. 

When Paul would have entered in unto the people, the disciples 
suffered him not. 

They must be proved men. 

They drove into exile the man that had been called the father of 
his country. 

Our own excited spirits must have been quickly imparted to our 
beasts. 

The city must have filled the whole plain. 

What motives could have driven them to the commission of such 
an act ? 

What will be the answer of the Judge to the poor Indian ? 

I can not say. 

The life of every individual may be compared to a river. 

A king might have the whole of his reign crowned with enter- 
prises of glory. 

Who does not feel an aggrandizement of thought and faculty, when 
he looks abroad over the amplitude of creation? 

Had I been careful of my property, I might have been in easy cir- 
cumstances. 

They will not have reached the end of their journey, till late in 
the season. 

We shall be excused for a participation in that debate. 

We must be content with such things as we have. 

I am now friendless and penniless, because I have been prodigal 
qf my patrimony. 



§ 61. TENSE Of THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 

This mode has but one tense, the present ; and our grammarians 
have usually agreed, that it is used only in the second person. 

Remark. — The omission of its subject, unless when great warmth or 
feeling is to be manifested, is an established principle in all languages, 



TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 133 

1. It is the first root of the verb unvaried. 

Love (thou,) Love (ye or you.) 

2. It may be formed by prefixing do to the first root. 

Do (thou) love, Do (ye or you) love. 

3. By prefixing be to the third root, preceded by do 
when emphasis is required. 

Be (thou) reading, Be (ye or you) reading, 

or or 

Do (thou) be reading, Do (ye or you) be reading. 

4. By prefixing be to the fourth root, preceded by do 
when emphasis is required. 



Be (thou) loved, Be (ye or you) loved, 

or or 

Do (thou) be loved, Do (ye or you) be loved* 



EXERCISE. 

Express, in the imperative, all .the verbs in the list used in the 
previous exercises on tense, in conformity with each method of form- 
ation. 

Remark.- — The author of this work has not been able to convince 
himself, that verbs in the imperative are used only in the second 
person. On the other hand, the evidence, both from analogy and fact, 
forces the conclusion indisputably, that the imperative is often used 
in the first and third persons. 

The following examples will show, in brief, the reason for this 
conclusion : 

1. Determine that question as you will, you can not avoid this con- 

clusion. 

•p. 

In this example, no grammarian would think of parsing determine 

other than the imperalis^e ; but, i#the following examples, he will 
supply a bungling ellipsis in order to make his mode coincide with 
an arbitrary and false classification : 

2. Determine that question as he will, he can not avoid this con- 

clusion. 

3. Determine that question as I may, I can not avoid this con- 

clusion. 

12 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Now it would be gratifying to know what principles of logic 
place determine, in the first example, in the imperative, and not in 
the last two. Why, in the last two, a verb in the imperative must 
be supplied in order to put determine in the infinitive? 

Quibble on the definition of the imperative as much as you please, 
so long as you parse quibble and determine in the imperative, when 
in the second person, as just used, we must insist that analogy will 
require us to parse the words in italics, in the following examples, 
in the imperative. 

Come what may, we must resist this revolutionary spirit. 

Go where we may, we find man, everywhere, a worshiping being. 

Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke him, saying, Be it far 

from thee, Lord. 
God wiil hear the cry of the rational soul, be it ever so feeble. 
Devise whatever schemes they may, the wicked can not escape 

the stings of a guilty conscience. 
Complain of the dealings of Providence as we will, depend upon 

it, our greatest misfortunes are brought on by our follies. 
Believe it or not, we are a doomed people, unless we repent of the 

wounds inflicted upon humanity. 

It is conceded, that in each of these examples an ellipsis can be 
supplied, so as to throw the imperative verb to the infinitive ; but it 
is, at the same time, contended that it is contrary to fact, and conse- 
quently absurd, to supply such an ellipsis. 

Let the grammarian supply the^ellipsis in the following construc- 
tion, if he can. The pronoun he shows how the verb is used. 

Be he Greek or Jew, he is accepted of God, if he have the spirit 
of love. 



62. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



The subjunctive mode has two tenses : present and past. 

Remark 1. — When a future contingency is to be expressed, the 
subjunctive mode, present tense, may be used; though this present 
tense subjunctive always refers to future time, yet the event is re- 
ferred to as present. 



TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 135 

The present tense of the subjunctive mode is formed — 

1. From the first root of the verb, unvaried through 
its different persons and numbers. 

EXAMPLES. 

I love, We love, 

Thou love, You love, 

He love, They love. 

2. By prefixing he to the third root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I be reading, We be reading, 

Thou be reading, You be reading, 

He be reading, They be reading. 

3. By prefixing he to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLES. 

I be loved, We be loved, 

Thou be loved, You be loved, 

He be loved, They be loved. 

Note. — The present tense of this mode is always preceded by a conjunction. 

Remark 2. — The past tense of the subjunctive mode is used, when 
to a verb expressing indefinite time, a contingent event is to be 
added, expressing also indefinite time. 

This tense will require the conjunction, if the nominative stands 
before the verb ; but if the nominative stands after the verb, or after 
the first auxiliary, then the conjunction can not be used ; nor is it to 
be explained, that the conjunction is understood, for the moment the 
conjunction is expressed, the construction is chaiiged, by changing 
the position of the nominative.' It is simply a construction that does 
not require a conjunction to connect it to another proposition. 

The past tense of the subjunctive mode is formed — 

1. From the second root, without varying it in person 
and number. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 

I loved, We loved, 

Thou loved, You loved, 

He loved, They loved. 

2. By prefixing were to the third root, and varying 
were to wert for the second person singular. 

EXAMPLES. 

I were reading, We were reading, 

Thou wert reading, You were reading, 

He were reading, They were reading. 

3. By prefixing were to the fourth root, and varying as 
before. 

EXAMPLE.S. 

I were loved, We were loved, 

Thou wert loved, You were loved, 

He were loved, They were loved. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Let the student express all the verbs in the list hitherto used, 
in the subjunctive mode, present tense, and then in the past, in ac- 
cordance with the several modes of formation. 

2. State the tense of each of the verbs in each of the following 

EXAMPLES. 

If he be contented with his lot, he will enjoy much of happiness. 

That man will deal honestly, though he be the loser of property 
by such deal. 

He will do his duty, though all earth rise against him. 

They will not befriend me, lest I be not able to repay them. 

Were I rich, I would contribute liberally for such an enterprise. 

If thou wert an honest man, thy conscience would severely re- 
proach thee for such conduct. 

If thou obeyed thy parents, they would not censure thee. 



TENSES OP THE INFINITIVE MODE, 137 



§ 63, TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses : the present, and 
present perfect. 

The present tense is — 

1. The first root of the verb, usually preceded by to. 

EXAMPLE. 
To read. 

2. It is formed by prefixing be to the third root. 

EXAMPLE. 
To be reading. 

3. By prefixing be to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLE. 
To be loved. 
The present perfect is formed — 

1. By prefixing have to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLE. 
To have loved. 

2. By prefixing been, preceded by have, to the third 
root. 

EXAMPLE. 
To have been reading. 

3. By prefixing been, preceded by have, to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLE. 
To have been loved. 



13S ENGLISH CRAMMAIL 

EXERCISES. 

Express all the verbs, in the list used in the former exercises, m 
the infinitive mode, present tense, and then in the present perfect, 
according to the several modes of formation. 

2. State the tense of each of the verbs in each of the following 

EXAMPLES. 

Determine to persevere in your studies. 
Try to improve your time. 
Endeavor to be gaining information. 
Be prepared to attend school. 
Be determined to succeed. 

He seems to have been engaged in a profitable business. 
They are reported to have been doing well. 
He may be prepared to concede to your demand. 
I intended to have been present. 
He expects to be writing letters at that hour. 
The Captain purposed to have released him. 
I do not wish to be standing in the way of any one. 
I could not have expected to have been prospered in such an en- 
terprise. 
Request him to publish the whole bill. 
Do not be meddling with affairs that do not concern you. 
No man wishes to be despised. 
You ought not to be trifling with sacred things, 
They have shown a disposition to abandon their party, 
We are preparing to give an entertainment. 
Be not weary of the cares of life. 



§ 64 9 TENSES OF THE PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

The participial mode has three tenses: the present, 
past, and present perfect. 

The present tense is~ 

1, The third root of the verb. 

EXAMPLE, 
leading. 



TENSES OF THE PARTICIPIAL MODE. 139 

2. It is formed by prefixing Icing, the third root of be f 
to the third root. 

EXAMPLE. 
Being reading. 

3. By prefixing &cing to the fourth root. 

EXAMPLE. 
Being loved. 

The pist tense is the fourth root of the verb. 

E X A M PLE. 
Loved. 

The present perfect tense is formed— 

1. By prefixing leaving , the third root of have, to the 
fourth root of the verb. 

EXAM P U SI. 
Having loved. 

2. By prefixing been, preceded by having, to the third 
root, 

EXAMPLE. 
Having been reading, 

3. By prefixing been, preceded by having, to the fourth 
root. 

EXAMPLE, 

Having been loved. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Express each of the verbs, in the list used for exercises, in the- 
different tenses of the participial mode, according to the several modea 
of formation. 

2. Turn to the examples given in the different exercises under th§_ 
participial mode, and mention the tense of all the participles. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 65. PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

Remark 1. — The passive voice of some verbs lias, in the indica- 
tive mode, present and past tenses, a progressive form. 

It is formed by prefixing the first or second root of be to the pass- 
ive participle, present tense. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

I am being instructed, We are being instructed, 

Thou art being instructed, You are being instructed, 

He is being instructed, They are being instructed. 

PAST TENSE, 

I was being instructed, We were being instructed, 

Thou wast being instructed, You were being instructed, 

He was being instructed, They were being instructed. 

Remark 2. — The correctness of this form of the passive voice has 
been denied by many eminent grammarians. We are not disposed 
to enter into controversy with any on this subject, content to 
know, that this is a very common, beautiful, expressive, and necessary 
form of the verb. We hazard nothing in affirming, that it is as legiti- 
mate, and as well established, as any construction of the language 
whatever. If it be asked, why it is not extended to other tenses, 
and to only a limited number of verbs in these two tenses, the an- 
swer is, it is extended just as far as the idiom requires it, and no 
farther. 



§ 66. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 

The tenses, as they have been enumerated, do not mark the time 
of the performance- of an action with accuracy. By the use of ad- 
verbs, phrases used as adverbs, and by the connection of different 
propositions, time may be marked with various degrees of precision, 
or with perfect accuracy, as shall suit the purpose of the speaker or 
writer. Great variety, beauty, vivacity, and copiousness, are given to 
language, by using the same form of the verb to express different 
varieties of time. The following remarks and illustrations will make 
f his statement clear. 






GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 141 

I. Tenses of the indicative mode. 

1. The present may indicate — 

(1.) What is now taking place. This is its usual office. 

(2.) It may indicate an act that is now determined on, 
but which is to take place at some future time. 

EXAMPLES. 

He goes next week. 

He returns by the first stage. 

They leave in the spring. 

He finishes his job next season. 

(3.) It indicates future time, when, in a dependent pro- 
position, it is connected with the future tense. 

EXAMPLES. 

He will do your business when he returns. 

I shall commence my course of lectures as soon as my health suf- 
ficiently recovers. 

(4.) A customary event is, usually, expressed by the 
present tense. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is a diligent student. 

He drinks very hard. 

They attend church very punctually. 

He is an industrious man. 

2. The past tense always refers to past time, either re- 
mote or recent. But the form of the verb called the 
past tense indicative, leaves the time entirely indefinite 
It may be rendered more or less definite, as stated in the 
first remark. Whenever we wish to speak of future 
events in the past tense, we* throw ourselves forward, in 
imagination, to a period subsequent to that which we are 
mentioning; then the event is past with respect to that 
period. 



14S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



3. The future tense always refers to future time, and 
bears the same relation to future time, that the past tense 
does to past time, and may be rendered definite in the 
same manner. By means of adverbs, it may indicate 
what is to be done the next moment, but it is a moment 
future to the present. 

EXAMPLES. 

They will do it now. 

I shall go immediately to Philadelphia. 

4. The present perfect tense indicates the completion 
of an action, but the completion is mentioned as having 
taken place within a measured period of time, longer or 
shorter, but not yet ended. Hence the use of the term 
present as applying to a period of time now progressing, 
and the term perfect as applying to an action completed 
in that part of the time already past. 

5. The past perfect tense is always connected with 
some proposition, expressed or implied, that limits the 
event with respect to a period, at or before which the 
event took place. Hence this tense can never construct 
an independent proposition. This form of the verb 
leaves the time as completely indefinite as the past tense; 
but it, at the same time, always requires a limiting pro- 
position, without which this form can not be used, 

EXAMPLES. 

I had thought this principle correct till now. 
We had gone from home when they came. 

6. The future perfect tense, like the past perfect, is al- 
ways connected with some proposition, expressed or im- 
plied, that limits the event to some future period of time, 
at or before which the event is to take place. Hence 
this tense can never construct an independent proposi- 
tion. This form of the verb leaves the time as com- 
pletely indefinite as the simple future ; but, at the same 
£ime, it requires a limiting proposition, without which 
ibis form of the verb can not be used. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 143 



EXAMPLES, 

I shall have obtained a reply before you can reach home. 
They will have used up all their means before they can collect 
the funds necessary to continue the work. 

Remark. — The explanation of the parts making up the verb is thus: 
Shall is an auxiliary, denoting future time, and expressing an opinTow ; 
have is an auxiliary, denoting present time, but by being connected 
with the future, is thrown forward into future time ; obtained is the 
fourth root of the verb, indicating the completion of an act. 

II. The tenses of the potential mode. 

1. The present tense is used to express what may take 
place immediately, or it may be used to express what 
may take place at any future period. The reason for 
calling this form of the verb present, seems to be, that it 
expresses a present intention, either positively or doubt- 
fully. This mode only indicates the possibility of an 
act's taking place, but if it does take place, it must be 
in future time. 

2. The auxiliaries of the imperfect tense may be used 
to express past, present, and future time. Hence it has 
by some writers been called indefinite ; but we might? 
about as well call all the tenses indefinite. Though this 
tense depends more for its time on other parts of dis- 
course, than some others, yet,, when it is connected with 
others, it becomes as definite as any other. If the ques- 
tion be asked, whether the student shall carefully distin- 
guish in parsing these variations of time* expressed by 
the same form of the verb, the answer, undoubtedly* 
should be, yes. ' 

EXAMPLES. 

PRESENT. 

I would aid you if I could. 

Might I not help you out of that difficulty 7 

I should not say as you do. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



t told him that she should not do it. 

They then notified me that I could not depend on their assistance. 

He said that I might draw upon him for the amount. 

He would not do as lie agreed. 



I might go with you, if I should receive certain funds that I am ex- 
pecting. 

I would go to Europe next season, if I could believe that my health 
would be improved by the journey. 

I should like to call on you, should I visit your part of the State. 

III. The tenses of the infinitive and participial modes. 

Infinitive mode, present tense. 

This tense is dependent on the verb with which it is 
connected to mark its time ; and the time will be past, 
present, or future, as the verb with which it is connected 
is past, present, or future. It is, moreover, to be observed, 
that the time is always future with respect to this verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

He directed me to come back immediately. 

He tells me to stay. 

I shall waut to have your company. 

The same remark will apply to the present tense of the 
participial mode as was made in relation to the infinitive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Becoming wealthy, he retired from business. 

Leaving school, he returned home. 

I return, bringing wi.h me the reward of my labors. 

Relying upon your integrity, I shall comply with your request. 



§ 67. REMARKS ON THE AUXILIARIES. 

It has already been noticed, (§ 48,) that the verbs shall, will, may, 
can, rnvjit, do, have, and be, are frequently used before other verbs, to 
express variations oT lime, mode, ami fgrtn. 



REMARKS Oft THE AUXILIARIES. 145 

The first five have no third and fourth roots. The second roots 
are all used as auxiliaries. Do has four roots, the first and second 
only being used as auxiliaries. Have has four roots, the first three 
being usea as auxiliaries. Be has four roots, all used as auxiliaries. 
The first root of the principal verb may be preceded by either of 
the first six auxiliaries. The second root is never preceded by an 
auxiliary. The third root is preceded by be, and its different roots. 
The fourth root is preceded by be and have, and their different roots, 
with the exception of the fourth root of have. Shall and will indi- 
cate the indicative mode, future teuse, or potential mode, present 
tense. ($ 53-4.) May, can, and mns f , indicate the potential mode, 
present tense. Might, could, would, should, and must, indicate the 
potential mode. past, present, or future tense. Do, as an auxiliary, 
may be used to render an expression emphatic, to supply the place 
of a verb or a phrase, to form negative or interrogative propositions 
in the indicative mode. 



EXAMPLES. 

1. I do protest against such conduct. 

I do wish that our success might ecpial our expectations. 

2. I was directed to notify him of his appointment, and have done 

so — (notified him of his appointment.) 
They employed an agent to transact their business on the con- 
tinent, and he did it. 

3. We do not understand you. 
He did not permit us to reply. 

4. Do you inteud to visit our school ? 
Do we not need protection? 

Have indicates present time ; but, following an auxiliary, it takes 
the time of the auxiliary that it follows ; also changes the fourth 
root of a transitive verb from the passive to the active voice, when 
placed immediately before it; but if been intervenes, the root re- 
mains passive. Be indicates existence, and is used before the third 
and fourth roots of the principal verb, to preserve their meaning. 



STECIAL REMARK. 

A more simple explanation of this whole subject of auxiliaries, re- 
gards all verbs as principal verbs. The different roots that follow 
such as are note called auxiliaries, are verbs in the infinitive mode, 
without the preposition to. All analogy in the argument sustains this 
position. The teacher will find the method of parsing the verb, 
suggested by this remark, very easy. 

13 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 68. FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PERSONS. 



RULE RELATING TO FIRST ROOTS. 

The second person singular of the first root of all principal verbs, 
and of the auxiliary do, is formed by annexing at to the root; and the 
third person singular, by annexing * or es to the root. Have is 
cfaanged to hast and has, to form the second and third persons sin- 
gular. Am is changed to art and is, to form the second and third per- 
sons singular, and to are to form the plural. May and can annex st 
to form the second person singular; shall and will drop the final I 
and annex t. The plural of all principal verbs, and all auxilia- 
ries, except be, is the same in form as the first person singular, and 
all verbs are unvaried in the plural. The third person singular of 
may, can, shall, and will, is the same as the first person. Must i» in- 
variable. 



RULE RELATING TO SECOND ROOTS. 

The second person singular of all second roots of all principal 
verbs, and all auxiliaries, with the exception of must and be, is formed 
by annexing st to the root. Was is changed into wast, to form the 
second person singular. The third person singular, and the plural, 
is the same as the first person singular. 

Remark 1. — The verb need, followed by an infinitive in negative 
propositions, is the same form In the third person singular, as in the 
first person. 

EXAMPLES. 

He need not go. 

She need not be disappointed. 

Need, in this construction, is an auxiliary, if we have any auxil- 
iaries. 

Remark 2. — In sacred writings, the third person singular of prin- 
cipal verbs, and of the auxiliary do, ends in eth; have is changed into 
hath, to form the third person singular. 

EXAMTLES. 

Who provideth the raven his food ? 

Who hath given understanding to the heart ? 



REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 147 



§ 69. USE OF THE DIFFERENT ROOTS OF THE VERB IN THE 
FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS MODES AND TENSES, 



By a careful review of the verb, it will be found, that from the 
first root is formed, in the intransitive verbs, and the active voice of 
transitive verbs, the present tense, in all the modes except the par- 
ticipial, the future indicative, past potential, and the past indicative. 
if it be preceded by the auxiliary did. 

From the second root, is formed the past indicative. 

From the third, is formed the present participial and progressive 
form of the verb. 

From the fourth, is formed the present, past, and future perfect, in- 
dicative ; present and past perfect potential ; perfect infinitive ; past 
and present perfect participial ; and the entire passive voice. 

Note. — The subjunctive, being formed the same as the indicative, is not noticed 
in the above. 



§ 70. REMARKS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



1. The passive voice was defined, (§ 18,) to be a verb that de- 
scribes its recipient, and is followed by the agent connected to the 
verb by the preposition by. But, by numerous examples, it has been 
<6een, that the agent may be omitted upon the usual principle of ellip- 
sis. (§ 45.) There are, however, a few verbs, reflexive in their use, 
that will not admit the insertion of the agent at all, when used in the 
passive. The following definition and examples will illustrate : 

Definition. — A verb expressing the operations of the 
intelligence that terminate on the speaker, is called a re- 
flexive verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am prepared for any emergency. 

They are inclined to take the opposite side. 

We are acquainted with him. 

I am disposed to think favorably of his proposal*. 



148 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. There is a class of verbs that are frequently followed by pre- 
positions that form a constituent part of the verb. The substantive 
following is the recipient, and not the consequent, of the preposition. 
When these verbs are changed to the passive, the preposition still oc- 
cupies its position after the passive root. The preposition com- 
pounded with the verb is, usually, placed before the verb ; but in 
the English language, it is sometimes placed before and sometimes 
after. 



EXAMPLES. 



They laughed at us. 
We were laughed at. 
They will call on you. 
You will be called on. 



They spoke to me. 
I was spoken to. 
He was listened to. 
We were looked at. 



§ 71. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
AM OR BE. 



Primary 
Am or 



root. 
be. 



Secondary roots. 
Was, being, been. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


1st Person, 


I am or be, 




We are or be, 


2d 


Thou art, 




You are or be, 


3d 


He is, 




They are or be. 




PAST 


TENSE. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


1st Person, 


I was, 




We were, 


2d " 


Thou wast, 




You were, 


3d 


He was, 




They were. 



FUTURE TENSE. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 


I shall be, 


We shall be, 


2d 


Thou wilt be, 


You will be, 


3d 


He will be. 


They will be, 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB AM OR BE. 149 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been, 



Plural. 
We have been, 
You have been, 
They have been. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



FAST PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I had been. 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been, 



Plural. 
We had been, . 
You had been, 
They had been. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE, 



Singular. 
I shall have been, 
Thou wilt have been, 
He will have been, 



Plural. 
We shall have been, 
You will have been, 
They will have been. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 
2d " 
3d 


I may be, 

Thou mayest be, 

He may be, 

PAST TENSE, 


We may be, 
You may be, 
They may be* 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I might be, 

Thou mightest be, 

He might be, 


We might be* 
You might be, 
They might be. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I may have been, We may have been, 

2d " Thou mayest have been, You may have been, 

3d " He may have been, They may have been. 



15$ ENGLISH" GRAMMAR 



PAST PERFECT TENSE, 



Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I might have been, We might have beei*,- 

2d " Thou mightest have been, You might have been,. 

3d " He might have been, They might have buea~ 



IMPERATIVE MODE, 



present tense. 



^ -ii (in the first second, and third 

13e or do be, < , ' , , , 

I persons, singular and plural. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, 



PRESENT TENSE. 





Singula r. 




PlnraL 


1st Person, 


I be, 




We be, 


2d 


Thou be. 




You be, 


3d 


He be, 




They be. 




PAST 


TENSE. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Ifct. Person; 


I were, 




We were, 


M :, u- 


Thou wert, 




You were, 


3d *& 


He were, 




They were, 



INFINITIVE MODE, 

PRESENT TENSE. 
To be, 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE, 

To have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE* 

FTeir% 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB LOVE, 



1« 



PAST TENSE, 
Been. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Having been. 



§ 72. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB LOVE, 
IN THE ACTIVE VOICE. 



Primary root. 
Love. 



Secondary roots. 
Loved ? loving, loved- 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE, 





Singular, 


Plural, 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I love, 
Thou, loves, t, 
Ke loves,, 

PAST TENSE. 


We love, 
You love, 
They tove* 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1st Person, 
2d 

d& 


I loved, 
Thou lovedst, 
He loved, 

FUTURE TENSE. 


We loved,, 
You loved,. 
They loved* 




Singular, 


Plural. 


1st Per son t 

2d 

3d " 


I shall love, 
Thou wilt love, 
He will love, 


We shall love^ 
You will love> 
They will love. 




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 


1st Person, 

2d 

?d m 


Singular. 
I have loved, 
Thou hast loved, 
He has loved, 


Plural. 
We have loved, 
You have loved, 
They have love$, 



152 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 
Singu lar. Plura I. 



1st Person, 


I had loved, 


We had loved, 


2d " 


Thou hadst loved, 


You had loved, 


3d " 


He had loved, 


They had loved. 






FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



Singular* 
I shall have loved, 
Thou wilt have lovedV 
He will have loved ? 



Plural. 
We shall have loved, 
You will have loved, 
They will have loved. 



POTENTIAL MODK 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



Singular. 
I may love, 
Thou mayest love, 
He may love, 



Plural. 
We may love, 
You may love, 
They may love. 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I might love, We might love, 

2d " Thou mightest love, You might love, 

3d " He might love, They might love. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular, 
1st Person, I may have loved, 
2d " Thou mayest have loved? 

3d " He may have loved, 



Plural. 
We may have loved, 
You may have loved, 
They may have loved, 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular, Plural, 

1st Person, I might have loved, We might have loved,, 

2d " Thou mightest have loved, You might have loved, 

3d « He m%bt have loved, They might have lovec^ 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB LOVE. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Love or do love. 



153 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



Singular. 
I love, 
Thou love, 
He love, 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
I loved, 
Thou loved, 
He loved, 



Plural. 

We love, 
You love, 
They love. 



Plural. 
We loved, 
You loved, 
They loved. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

To love. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

To have loved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Loving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Having loved. 



154 



ENG1ISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 73. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB 
READ, IN THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 



Primary root. 
Read. 



Secondary roots. 
Read, reading, read. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 
2d " 
3d 


I am reading, 
Thou art reading, 
He is reading, 

PAST TENSE. 


We are reading, 
You are reading, 
They are reading. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 
2d " 
3d 


I was reading, 
Thou wast reading, 
He was reading, 

FUTURE TENSE 


We were reading, 
You were reading, 
They were reading. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d " 


Singular. 
I shall be reading, 
Thou wilt be reading, 
He will be reading, 


Plural. 
We shall be reading, 
You will be reading, 
They will be reading. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Person, I have been reading, 
2d " Thou hast been reading, 

3d " He has been reading, 



Plural. 
We have been reading, 
You have been reading, 
They have been reading 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Person, I had been reading, 
2d " Thou hadst been reading, 

3d " He had been reading. 



Plural. 
We had been reading, 
You had been reading, 
They had been reading. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB READ. 155 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1st Per. I shall have been reading, We shall have been reading,. 
2d " Thou wilt have been reading, You will have been reading, 
3d " He will have been reading, They will have been reading. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I may be reading, We may be reading, 

2d " Thou mayest be reading, You may be reading, 
3d " He may be reading, They may be reading. 



PAST TENSE* 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I might be reading, We might be reading, 

2d " Thou mightest be reading, You might be reading, 
3d M . He might be reading, They might be reading. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I may have been reading, We may have been reading, 

2d " Thou mayest have been reading, You may have been reading, 
3d " He may have been reading, They may have been reading. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I might have been reading. We might have been reading, 
2d " Thou mightest have been read- You might have been reading, 

ing, 
3d " He might have been reading, They might have been reading. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Be reading; or, Do be reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I be reading, We be reading, 

2d " Thou be reading, You be reading, 

3d " He be reading, They be reading. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

1st Person, I were reading, We were reading, 

2d ** Thou wert reading, You were reading, 

3d " He were reading, They were reading. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

To be reading. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

To have been reading. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Being reading. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Having been reading, 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB LOVE. 157 



§ 74. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB LOVE, 
IN THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



Primary root. Secondary roots. 

Love. Loved, loving, loved. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I am loved, 
Thou art loved, 
He is loved, 

PAST TENSE. 


We are loved, 
You are loved, 
They are loved. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

Zd 


I was loved, 
Thou wast loved, 
He was loved, 


We were loved, 
You were loved, 
They were loved. 




FUTURE TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I shall be loved, 
Thou wilt be loved, 
He will be loved, 


We shall be loved, 
You will be loved, 
They will be loved. 




PRESENT PERFECT ' 


TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I have been loved, 
Thou hast been loved, 
He has been loved, 


We have been loved, 
You have been loved, 
They have been loved. 




PAST PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


I had been loved, 
Thou hadst been loved, 
He had been loved, 

14 


We had been loved, 
Y^ou had been loved, 
They had been loved. 



158 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1st Person, I shall have been loved, We shall have been loved, 
2a " " Thou wilt have been loved, You will have been loved, 

3d " He will have been loved, They will have been loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



Singular. 
I may be loved, 
Thou mayest be loved, 
He may be loved, 



Plural. 
We may be loved, 
You may be loved, 
They may be loved*. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Person, I might be loved, 
2d " Thou mightest be loved, 
3d " He might be loved, 



Plural. 
We might be loved, 
You might be loved, 
They might be loved. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I may have been loved, 
2d " Thou mayest have been loved, 
3d " He may have been loved, 



Plural. 
We may have been loved, 
You may have been loved, 
They may have been loved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Per. I might have been loved, 
2d " Thou mightesthave been loved, 
3d " He might have been loved. 



Plural. 
We might have been loved, 
You might have been loved, 
They might have been loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Be loved ; or, Do be loved 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB INSTRUCT. 159 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person j I be loved, We be loved, 

2d " Thou be loved, You be loved, 

3d " He be loved, They be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I were loved, We were loved, 

2d " Thou wert loved, You were loved 

3d " He were loved, They were loved 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

To be loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

To have been ]oved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Being loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Having been loved. 



§ 75. CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB INSTRUCT, IN 
THE PROGRESSIVE FORM, PASSIVE VOICE. 

Primary root. Secondary roots. 

Instruct. Instructed, instructing, instructed. 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 
1st Person, I am being instructed, 
2d " Thou art being instructed, 
3d " He is being instructed, 



Plural, 
We are being instructed, 
You are being instructed, 
They are being instructed. 



PAST TENSE. , 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Person, I was being instructed, We were being instructed, 

2d " Thou wast being instructed, You were being instructed, 
3d " He was bein CT instructed, They were being instructed. 



Remark 1. — We have now conjugated the verb positively. It may 
be conjugated negatively, by placing, in the personal forms, the ad- 
verb not after the first auxiliary, or after the principal verb in the 
tense3 without an auxiliary. The impersonal forms require the ad- 
verb to precede them. It may also be conjugated interrogatively, in 
the personal forms, by placing the subject after the first auxiliary, 
or after the principal verb, in the tenses without an auxiliary. 

Remark 2. — It has already been stated, (§ 53-4,) that shall and 
will, when they express futurity, belong to the indicative mode ; but 
when they express obligation, they belong to the potential. It may 
be added, in this place, that shall, preceded by a conjunction, imply- 
ing a hypothesis, denotes futurity in all the persons; and will, in like 
construction, denotes obligation. Hence the following conjugation 
of shall and will as auxiliaries. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



PECLARATIVELY. 



1st Person, 

2d 

3d 



1st Person, 
2d " 
U 



Singular. 

I shall, 
Thou wilt, 
He will, 



HYPOTHETICALLY. 



Singular. 

If I shall, 
If thou ahalt, 
If he shall, 



Plural. 
We shall, 
You will, 
They will. 



Plural. 
If we shall, 
If you shall, 
If they shall 



SUBSTANTIVE VERBS, PHRASES, AND PROPOSITIONS. 161 





INTERROGATIVELY. 




1st Per son j 

2d 

3d 


Singular, 
Shall I ? 
Shalt thou ? 
Will he ? 


Plural. 

Shall we ? 
Shall you? 
Will they ? 



POTENTIAL MODE. 





PRESENT TENSE. 






DECLARATIVELY. 




• 


Singular 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d " 


I will, 
Thou shalt, 
He shall, 

HYPOTHETICALLY. 


We will, 

You shall, 
They shall. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1st Person, 

2d 

3d 


If I will, 
If thou wilt, 
If he will, 

INTERROGATIVELY. 


If we will, 
If you will, 
If they will. 


Ist Person, 

2d 

3d 


Singular. 
Shall I? 
Wilt thou? 
Shall or will he ? 


Plural. 
Shall we ? 
Will you ? 
Shall or will they ? 



§ 76. SUBSTANTIVE VERBS, PHRASES, AND PRO- 
POSITIONS. 

Definition 1. — A verb performing the office of a noun* 
is called a substantive verb. 



EXAMPLES. 



Swearing is a low vice. 

Scolding exerts a pernicious influence. 

Lying should be abhorred by every lover of virtue* 

Writing^ not permitted in our school. 



IG2 



ENGLISH GRAM^rAE-. 



Definition 2.— A phrase performing the office of a 
noun, is called a substantive phrase, 

EXAMPLES. 

To lie, is base. 

To profess friendship, is to act the part of a friend. 

To practice deception, is to impose on ourselves. 

To cheat ourselves, is to show our folly. 

Using prof ane language, is a low vice. 

Indulging the appetites beyond the limits assigned: them by the Crec®» 

tor, will bring the complete destruction of happiness. 
Doing evil that good may come, is becoming popular. 
Studying the Scriptures, is a means of growing in grace. • 

Remark. — In the first four examples above, the infinitive phrasesy 
and, in the last four, the participial phrases, perform the office of 
nouns* 

Specification. — Hence substantive phrases may be di- 
vided into two classes : infinitive and participial. 

Definition 3. — The infinitive substantive phrase has 
a verb in the infinitive mode as its prominent word, to 
which other words may be added as modifiers. 

Remark 1. — When the subject of the infinitive mode is some gene* 
ral term, or a. term sufficiently obvious though particular, it is usually 
suppressed 1 . In the first four examples above, the subjects are sup- 
pressed. The word man, preceded by the preposition for, is the 
subject in the first two examples, and us, preceded by the same pre* 
position, is the subject in the last two. 

Remark 2. — Some authors have called the infinitive, thus used, an 
abstract infinitive. They have, also, called the adjective or participle 
that may follow the intransitive or passive infinitive, in such construc- 
tions, an abstract adjective or participle. But this has seemed to us 
a very abstract method of parsing. Others, again, have called these 
words indefinite ; but nothing is more sure than that they are as de- 
finite as words in any other construction. We must, therefore, be 
permitted to explain the construction as we understand it. The ex- 
planation is this : The subject of the infinitive mode, that is, the prin- 
cipal word in a substantive phrase, may be suppressed, and the in- 
finitive is to be parsed as describing its subject suppressed. An ad- 
jective, participle, or substantive, may follow the intransitive or 
passive infinitive, as explanatory of the subject expressed or sup- 
pressed. In parsing, each word of the phrase is to be separately 
parsed, and then the whole phrase is to be parsed as a noun. \% 
inay be well to call attention to the fact, that the subject of this ab- 
stract infinitive, as it is called, is not always suppressed* 



SUBSTANTIVE VERBS, PHRASES, AND PROPOSITIONS. 163 

EXAMPLES. 

For man to tell how human life began, is hard, for who himself 

begin ning knew ? 
For a man to affect to be lord in his own closet, would be romantic 

madness 

Remark 3. — Phrases and propositions, used as nouns, may have 
adjectives modify ing them, the same as other nouns. 

EXAMPLES, 

To have been at such a party, would have subjected me to the 

sever st censnre. 
To have wished for such a result, would have been thought ex- 
travagant. 
To be virtuous, is to be benevolent. 
To be poor, is no crime. 
To be rich; is no merit. 

To be iudustrons, is to meet the demands of our nature; 
To be proud of our advantages, is to exhibit our ignorance. 
To be found ignorant of those things with which we ought to be 

acquainted, is extremely censurable. 
To be intemperate, is to debase ourselves. 
To become rich,, was never my anxiety. 
To seem honest, is a very common wish. 
To be obedient to our parents, is the injunction of Heaven. 
To be cautious, is a dictate of nature. 
To be a scholar, requires much persevering industry. 
To become a princess, was her hope. 
To be soldiers, was that for which they were designed. 
To become a distinguished man, is die full purpose of our class 

mate. 
To be a gardener, is an occupation for which he will be trained. 
To become a distinguished lawyer, requires much perseverance. 
To be a slave, is repugnant to the human soul. 
To catch fish, is the chief business of the inhabitants. 
To teach idle children, is his employment. 
To aid man in his misfortunes, was his chief delight. 
To provide ihe means of education for the whole people, is the 

business of the legislator. 
To have a friend, in whom I can confide, is my most anxious wish. 
To bear the ills of life, requires a spirit chastened by consecration 

to God. 
To accustom the mind to accurate thinking, should be our iirst 

effort at mental culture. 
To implant the principles of truth in the minds of the young, 

should be the chief labor of every educator. 
To be often suspected of crime, argues that all is not right. 
To be punished, was what we expected. 
To be freed from care, was not sought. 
To be saved from a watery grave, was the prayer of all* 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To be held responsible for such conduct, is rather unpleasant. 
To be fretful under disappointment, is most absurd. 
To be called a drunkard, is too much to be borne without resent- 
ment. . 
To be esteemed a friend of the friendless, is my highest ambition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the substantive phrase in each of the foregoing ex 
amples, stating its M'nd r whether intransitive, intransitive post adjec- 
tive, &c. 

2. Parse all the words in each phrase, and then the phrase as a 
substantive. Thus : To be virtuous, is to be benevolent, has two sub- 
stantive phrases. To is a preposition, and shows the relation be- 
tween man, suppressed, and be. Be is an intransitive verb, first root 
of am or be, was, being, been ; infinitive mode, present tense, and 
describes its subject man, suppressed. Virtuous is an adjective, and 
modifies man, suppressed. 

3. Write similar examples. 

Definition 4. — A participial substantive phrase, is a 
phrase performing the office of a noun, in which the 
participle is the principal word, and to which other 
words may be annexed as modifiers. 

Examples have already been given. 

Remark 1. — When the participial phrase is the subject or object 
of a verb, the participle can not, in conformity to euphony, take its 
subject either in the nominative or objective ease. Whei* the subject, 
in such circumstances, is some noun general in its application, or suf- 
ficiently obvious though particular, it is suppressed ; but when, by 
suppression, the sense would be obscured, the subject is expressed, 
before the phrase, in the possessive case. 

EXAMPLES. 

His being drawn into such company, was not expected. 
I will not oppose his going home. 

The participle in each example describes the possessive pronoun ; 
the pronoun is in the possessive case by euphony ; and the whole 
phrase is a substantive in the nominative case, in the first example, 
and in the objective case, in the last. 

Each word in the phrase is to be parsed according to the rules al- 
ready given, with the single variation, that the pronoun is in the pos- 
sessive case by euphony, placed as a modifier of the phrase, instead 
of a particular word, The phrase is to be parsed together as a noi4u. 



SUBSTANTIVE VERBS, PHRASES, AND PROPOSITIONS. 1G5 

Remark 2. — When an intransitive or passive participle, is used 
without its subject, it is to be parsed as describing its subject sup- 
pressed ; and if, in such constructions, it is followed by an adjective, 
the adjective is to be parsed as modifying the subject suppressed ; 
or, if it is followed by a noun, the noun is to be parsed as explanative 
of the subject suppressed. But if the intransitive or passive parti- 
ciple, has its subject expressed in the possessive case by euphony, 
then the noun following it is in the same case as the subject ivould 
have been had not the principle of euphony required it to be in the 
possessive. 

EXAMPLES. 

Being poor, does not justify slovenliness. 

Being sick at the time of your anniversary, is a sufficient apology 
for my absence. 

Being a man of fortune, can not excuse the ill-treatment of your 
servants. 

Being a clergyman, does not entitle you to make the pulpit the 
place to rebuke personal wrongs. 

We approve their (them) becoming members of your family. 

Your (you) becoming my friend, is no reason why I should not re- 
buke you. 

Its (it) being I, need make no difference. 

Remark 3. — The disposition of the substantive, following an in- 
transitive participle, as in the last five examples, has served to occa- 
sion great perplexity among grammarians. 

One author has come to the conclusion, that they must be in the 
same case as the preceding substantive, according to his rule, "in- 
transitive verbs take the same case after a3 before them, when both 
words refer to same person or thing." 

Another, from the analysis of two examples, " Its being me makes 
no difference," and, "I did not think of its being me," comes to the 
conclusion, that both are good English, and therefore the noun or 
pronoun following an intransitive participle must be alw r ays in the 
objective case. 

And still a third, is of the opinion, that the substantive, in such po- 
sitions, must be in the nominative. 

A fourth, determines to exclude all examples containing a posses- 
sive case before a participle, as bad English, notwithstanding they 
form some of the smoothest, easiest constructions in the language. 

Now, with all due respect, let it be asked, how, amid this Babel 
of constructions, shall the learner get at the truth ? "If doctors 
disagree," who shall unfold the truth? Is it so, that there are no 
foundation principles, which shall lead unerringly to a correct ex- 
planation? We would not arrogate anything to ourself, but we be- 
lieve that we have given the key to this perplexing subject in re- 
mark second. If any grammarian shall think differently, we shall b© 
most grateful to him for showing: the error. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE I. 



L State the subject of each participle in the following examples. 

2. Parse each word in the participial phrases, and then parse the 
phrases as nouns. 

3. Write similar examples. 



EXAMPLES. 

Biding on horseback, is good exercise. 

Scolding exerts a pernicious influence. 

Whipping in school may be resorted to when other moral influ- 
ences have failed. 

Laboring for the good of others, increases our interest in the cause 
of humanity. 

His being under such influences, is the cause of his misfortunes. 

His having returned so soon, is an indication that he dislikes the 
country. 

Rising early, is an advantage to health. 

Being poor, is sometimes deemed a calamity. 

Your having been sick, has diminished your means of support. 

Being called poor, is not the greatest calamity that can befall a 
man. 

The night being dark, gave the enemy a decided advantage. 

The season being cold, rendered it impossible to remain longer in 
those regions with safety. 

Being unnatural, may be accounted for variously. 

The punishment's being too severe, overcame his fortitude. 

The weather's being dubious, rendered it inexpedient to go. 

Their having been industrious, has gained for them a good report. 

Her being so studious, will raise her to the summit of fame and 
usefulness. 

His being ignorant of the effect, will expose him to much cen- 
sure. 

His being anxious to become useful, will have its bearing in re- 
commending him to society. 

Her being diffident, makes her appear awkward. 

Her being unacquainted with the customs of society, is very un- 
favorable to her reception. 

His having been a merchant, has qualified him for his present po- 
sition. 

His having been a member of that body, frees us from all respon- 
sibility in that respect. 

His being chairman, gives him a commanding influence in that 
body. 

His having become a miser, sealed his heart against every benevo 
lent enterprise. 

Their being Christians, subjected them to all kinds of ill treatment 



SUBSTANTIVE VERBS, PHRASES, AND PROPOSITIONS. 1G7 

My father did not like their being my associates. 

Obtaining property by dishonest means, never made a man happy. 

They have prevented his securing support. 

They have broken up his visiting the tavern. 

Our wanting food proved a fortunate event. 

Carrying fire-arms, was forbidden by the police. 

Inflicting wounds upon the feelings of others, indicated a reckless- 
ness of spirit. 

Preparing his manuscript for publication, occupied his entire at- 
tention. 

We must prevent their escaping the penalties of the law. 

You, undoubtedly, regret having been caught in such company. 

His having been reduced to poverty, was the occasion of his de- 
rangement. 

Your having been persuaded to accompany us, is no reason why 
you should now abandon us. 

Their having been persecuted, gained them friends. 

I could not help being singularly struck with the light which this 
visit threw on that characteristic of his composition. 

His being disposed to merriment, exposed him to numerous tempta- 
tions. 

Having been accustomed to lively company, unfitted him for the 
stern duties that now devolved upon him. 

His being supposed guilty, gave him less chance for defense. 

Being called generous, is not always a sufficient proof of genuine 
benevolence. 

We opposed his being elected a member of our society. 

His being deemed a good citizen, was the result of his industrious 
habits. 



EXERCISE II. 

Remark. — The participial substantive phrase is, very frequently, 
the consequent term of a relation expressed by a preposition. In 
this construction, the subject of the participle may be expressed in 
that part of the proposition which does not include the phrase ; if it 
is not there expressed, it must be suppressed, or expressed in the 
possessive before the phrase. 



EXAMPLES. 

You must not be discouraged at not being able to do what you bad 

marked out. 
The owner called him to an account for stealing his property. 
On turning our attention more closely to the subject, we found 

our mistake. 
We honor men for being brave. 
Nothing can be gained by (your) spreeing. 
Prosperity may be secured by (your) attending to your business 

better. 



168 ENGLISH GftAMMAR. 



There is no advantage in opposing such a man. 

Yielding to one temptation, is the signal for yielding to another. 

I have no objection to his becoming a physician. 

I did not think of its being you. 

They were not sure of its being me. 

They object to his being my companion. 



second, him is the subject of stealing; in the third, we is the subject 
of turning; in the fourth, men is the subject of being; in the suc- 
ceeding four, the subject is suppressed; and in the last four, it is ex- 
pressed in the possessive. 

In parsing, the participle is to be parsed as describing its subject, 
and the preposition as showing the relation between some preceding 
word and the phrase. 

In analyzing, the whole phrase is to be called a prepositive parti- 
cipial phrase, intransitive, intransitive post adjective, &c. 

Definition. — A substantive proposition is a proposi- 
tion pei*forming the office of a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

That we were designed for happiness, is a truth inscribed on every 
element of our constitution. 

He says that he can not go. 

That we must get our bread by the sweat of our brow, is no calamity. 

That all men are endowed with certain unalienable rights, is a doc- 
trine of the Declaration of Independence. 

We hoped that you would have assisted us in our enterprise. 

That we are accountable creatures, is too manifest to need proof. 

That pride is the offspring of a weak mind, is proved by the fact 
that men of the most extensive attainments are always most 
humble. 

Canst thou expect that thou shalt escape the hand of vengeance ? 

Remark. — The substantive proposition is always preceded by the 
adjective that, used as a definitive word. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Analyze the preceding examples, analyzing the substantive 
propositions separately. 

2. Parse the verbs and substantives. 



IT. REPRESENTING A SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 169 



§ 77. IT, REPRESENTING A SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 

Remark 1. — The substantive verb, phrase, or proposition, is uni- 
formly of the third person singular, and hence represented by the 
pronoun it. 

Remark 2. — Instead of using the phrase or proposition, as the sub- 
ject of a personal verb, it is often made the subject of the verb, and 
the phrase or proposition follows the verb, or some of its modifiers, 
as explanatory of it. 

EXAMFLE.S. 
I. 

It might be expected, that humanity itself would prevent them 

from breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 
It would have been desirable, to have had his company. 
It has been strongly conjectured, that France murdered her King, 

the inoffensive and amiable Louis VI., because England once 

beheaded a King. 
It is strange, that even nations can hot become imitators without 

copying that which is atrocious. 
It was a great boast among the plowmen, that they could plow a 

straight line across the furrows or ridges of the field. 
Let it be kept in constant remembrance, that to aim at keeping 

the law, is not keeping it. 

II. 

It is impossible to be happy, without holiness. 

It is thriftless management, to borrow of future time. 

It requires a steady hand, to carry a full cup. 

It is knowledge enough for some folks, to know how much mis- 
chief may be ventured upon with impunity. 

It is enough, to know that we are capacitated to meet the demands 
of the moral law. 

It must be exquisite pleasure, for a man of fine sensibilities, to 
stand for two whole hours, the gaze of the multitude. 

It is not a small part of education, to cultivate perseverance. 

They labor in vain, hoping to prove that it is right to choose be- 
tween two evils. 

It is a sign of great modesty, to be willing to receive instruction. 

It is the care of a very great part of mankind, to conceal their in- 
digence from the rest. 

It deserves our best skill, to inquire into those rules by which we 
may guide our judgment, 

15 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 78. CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Specification. — Adjectives may be divided into five 
classes, according to the idea conveyed and their use : 
adjectives of quality or property, of origin, of state or 
condition, of direct allusion, and 'of number. 

Definition 1.— Adjectives of quality or property, are 
those which express some characteristic, either essential 
or accidental. 

EXAMPLES. 

Generous youth. Kind friends. 

Notable example. . Small honors. 

Careful attention. Beautiful trees. 

Good, hooks. Young people. 

Fair character. Industrious hahits. 

Superior excellence. Useful lessons. 

Definition 2. — Adjectives of origin, are those which 
express the source from which, belonging to, &c. 

Eemark. — This class includes all patrials and patronymics, as well 
as those denoting party or sect. 

EXAMPLES. 

American nation. English commerce. 

Hudson river. German literature. 

French travelers. Indian rights. 

Biblical science. Oregon boundary. 

Chinese letters. Italian music. 

Seneca lake. Roman arrogance. 

Presbyterian church. Democratic party. 

Definition 3. — Adjectives of state or condition, are 
such as denote all those conditions expressed by the 
verb. 

Remark. — The adjective character of the verb has been every 
where assumed in this work, as an incontrovertible fact. Hence 
every thing is made to surround the subject of a personal verb as the 
centre of discourse* 



ADJECTIVES ARE VARIED BY COMPARISON. 171 

It is not meant by this, that the adjective is a verb ; but it is meant, 
that the verb is an adjective. 

When the verb has lost its character of expressing being or doing, 
it may still be an adjective or a noun, bat not a verb. 

Definition 4. — Adjectives of direct allusion, are those 
adjective words used to point out the precise object 
meant, the extent of the application, &c. They are as 
follows : 

(1.) Dirkctivf.s— This, that, these, those, former, latter, which and 
what when used adje-ctively and not interrogatively, 
other, such, both, same, and the. 

(2.) Optionals or Optatives — A or an, any. another, some, either 
(a distributive.) whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and 
whatsoever. 

(3.) Extensives — All, u-hole, ever?/ and each (distributives.) 

(4.) Denials — Xo, none, neither (distributive.) 

(0.3 Interrogatives — Which ? what? whether 2 

Definition -5. — Adjectives of r numbcr, are those ex- 
pressing the ideas and order of number. They are as 
follows : 

(1.) Cardinals — One, two, three, four, &c. 

(2.) Ordinals — First, second, third, fourth, &c. 

(3.) Multiplicatives — Single ot alone, double or twofold, triple 
or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, &c. 



§ 79, ADJECTIVES ARE VARIED BY COMPARISON. 

Definition 1.— Comparison is expressing the quality 
in different degrees. 9 

Specification. — There are three degrees of compari- 
son, clearly distinguishable as such: the positive, com- 
parative, and superlative. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Definition 2.— The positive degree is the simplest 
form of the adjective. 

EXAMPLES, 
wise, great, small, fine, good. 

Definition 3. — The comparative degree is an increase 
or decrease of the positive. 

FORMATION. 

The comparative degree of monosyllables and dissyllables, ending 
in y or e silent, is formed according to the subsequent 

RULES. 

1. When the adjective ends in e, annex r. 

EXAMPLES, 
wise, wiser ; pure, purer ; lame, lamer ; noble, nobler. 

2. When it ends in a consonant, annex er. 

EXAMPLES, 
great, greater ; small, smaller ; kind, kinder. 

3. When it ends in y, change y into i, and annex er. 

EXAMPLES. 

holy, holier ; stormy, stormier ; lovely, lovelier. 

EXERCISE. 

Write out each of the adjectives in the following list in the com- 
paratives : 

rude, 

black, 

blue, 

green, 

grey, 

brown, 

heavy, 

rainy. 



tall, 


swift, 


vile, 


thin, 


wide, 


smart, 


pure, 


thick, 


late, 


quick, 


wicked, 


wet, 


bold, 


easy, * 


free, 


dry, 


low, 


hard, 


hot, 


fair, 


lazy, 


sharp, 


cold, 


cloudy. 


slow, 


dull, 


cool, 


wiJd, 


fast, 


blunt, 


warm, 


tame, 



ADJECTIVES ARE VARIED BY COMPARISON. 173 

Definition 4. — The superlative degree is an increase 

or decrease of the positive to the highest or lowest de- 
gree. 

FORMATION, 

The superlative degree of monosyllables, and dissyllables ending 
in y or e silent; is fuVined by annexing hi or est to the positive, in ac- 
cordance with the rides for the formation of the comparative. 

EXAMPLES. 

wise, wisest; pu-e, purest; great, greatest; 

small, smallest ; holy, holiest ; stormy, stormiest. 

EXERCISE. 

Give the comparative and superlative degrees of each of the fol- 
lowing adjectives: 



able, 


sad, 


strong, 


hazy. 


spry. 


rainy, 


old, 


stout, 


sleepy, 


slow, 


fast," 


new, 


short, 


rude, 


cheap. 


mild, 


young, 


long, 


crude, 


neat, 


mad, 


weak. 


straight, 


keen, 


high. 



Remark. — The relative degrees of increase may be expressed by 
the adverbs more and most, and the relative degrees of decrease by 
the adverbs leas and least. 

Adjectives that admit of comparison, other than monosyllables and 
dissyllables, ending in y or e silent, are compared by means of the 
adverbs above named. 

EXAMPLES. 

famous, more or less famous, most or least famous; 

amiable, more or less amiable; most or least amiable. 



EXERCISE. 
Compare the following adjectives by means of the adverbs: 



liable, vulgar, 

favorable, absurd, 

despicable, abstruse, 

commendable,. abstract, 

vulnerable, abundant, 



accessible, 
accursed, 


adequate, 
mindful, 


accessory, 
acquisitive, 

adapted, 


cheerful, 

teachable, 

prudent. 



17<£ ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

Specification. — Adjectives, with respect to -compari- 
&©«V are of three kinds: regular, irregular, and defective. 

Definition 1. — Regular adjectives are such, as form 
their comparative and superlative by annexing r or er y 
&t or est, or by prefixing more and most, or less and ifeasf. 

Definition 2. — Irregular adjectives are such as do not 
form the comparative and superlative regularly, or are 
redundant in the superlative. 







E 


XAMPLES. 

00 




good, 
?>ad or 






better, 


best; 


ill 




worse, 


worst 


little, 






less, 


least; 


much, 






more, 


most ; 


many, 






more, 


most. 



(2.) The following are redundant in the superlative: 

far, farther, farthest, farmost or farthermost; 

near, nearer, nearest or next ; 

lore, former, foremost or first ; 

Mild, hinder, hiudmostorhindermost; 

in, inner,- inmost or innermost ; 

out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost; 

«$>, upper, upmost or uppermost ; 

low, lower, lowest or lowermost ; 

late, later or latter,, latest or last. 

Definition 3. — Defective adjectives are such as can 
sot be varied in sense, or want the comparative or super- 
lative degree. 

EXAM PL ES. 

(1) 

eternal, everlasting, infinite, 

perfect, complete, supreme, 

immutable, this, that, &c. 



'ORDER 


OF 


(20 


ADJECTIVES, 17 


front, 






frontmost ; 


rear, 






rearmost ; 


head, 






headmost ; 


end, 






endmost; 


top, 






topmost; 


down, 






downmost 


mid or middle. 


midst, 


midmost or middlemost; 


north, 






northmost ; 


south, 






southmost ; 


northern, 






northernmost ; 


southern, 






southernmost ; • 


eastern, 






easternmost ; 


western,. 




(3.) 


westernmost. 


[aft, adv ] after. 






aftmost or aftermost 


forth, adv. ] further, 






furthest or furthermost ; 


hither, 






hithermost ; 


nether, 




, 


nethermost ; 


under. 






undermost. 



80. ORDER OF PARSING ADJECTIVES. 



I. Kind, 



%. Degree, 



Quality or property, 

Origin, 

State or condition, 



< Direct allusion, 



Number, 



f Positive, 
<J Comparative, 
^Superlative. 



directives, 

optionals, 

extensives^ 

denials, 
L interrogatives^ 
C cardinals, 
< ordinals, 
t multiplicatives. 



3. What it modifies. 

4. Rule — Adjectives modify substantives* 



X7G ENGLISH GRAM M All. 

The following examples will illustrate the order i 
The French pony is a valuable animal. 

The is an adjective of direct allusion, directive, not compared, and 
modifies pony. (Rule.) 

French is an adjective of origin, not compared, and modifies pony, 

A is an adjective of direct allusion, .optative, not compared, and 
modifies animal. 

Valuable is an adjective of quality, positive degree, and modifies 
animal. 

Note. — When an adjective is not compared, it may be as well not to mention 
the fact in parsing, 

EXERCISE. 

Turn to any or all the examples hitherto given, and parse the ad- 
jectives. 

Remark 1. — The comparative degree is usually followed by the 
conjunction than, introducing a fragmentary proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

The property is better than I expected. 

The pulse beats slower than usual. 

He is much more competent for the task than I am. 

We have traveled faster than you have. 

They are more industrious men than we are. 

He exhibited less vanity than he used to. 

She has a milder disposition than her sister. 

I would not wish to meet a man with a more generous spirit 

than his. 
He is a more vicious youth than I know what to do with. 
He is abler than I supposed. 
That is a better article than I want. 
That is a better article than is wanted. 
His business is more profitable than we had anticipated. 
His business is more profitable than had been anticipated. 
They ask for more assistance than I can render. 
They ask for more assistance than can be rendered. 
I propose a longer time for doing the work than you demand. 
Vanity is more censurable than pride. 
The girls are better scholars than the boys. 
Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity, than he that is pet" 

verse in his lips, 



ORDER OP PARSING ADJECTIVES. 177 

How much better is it to get wisdom than gold. 

Better is a little with righteousness, than great revenues without 

right. 
Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox and 

hatred therewith. 
Better is a little with the fear of the Lord, than great treasures and 

trouble therewith. 

Remark 2. — When the meaning is sufficiently manifest from what 
precedes, the latter proposition may be wholly omitted. 

EXAMPLES. 

She is a very good scholar, but Charlotte is better (than she is.) 
They have done well, and might have done better (than they have. ) 
We do not want more property (than we have got,) but we want 

more wisdom (than we have got.) 
You now give us a more favorable reply (than you did.) 

Remark 3. — The comparative degree, limited by a substantive ex- 
pressed or implied," connected to it by the preposition by, does not 
admit a subsequent proposition. This is not a frequent construction, 

EXAMPLES. 

She k the better scholar of the two. 
He is the more generous man. 

Remark 4. — The comparative degree always implies inequality. 
Equality is usually expressed by the positive, followed by the con= 
junction as, introducing a fragmentary proposition as the latter term 
of comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is as avaricious as ever. 

They are as kind as we could wish. 

They are as kind as could be wished. 

He is as well as I am. 

You have as good an opportunity to know as I have. 

He will expect as much interest as is usually paid. 

They have taken as deep an interest in my prosperity as could be 

expected. 
We get as favorable reports in relation to the health of the country 

as have reached us for a long time. 

Remark 5.-—When, in expressing equality, the meaning is suf 
ficiently manifest from what precedes, the latter proposition is 
omitted. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



EXAMPLES 



You have obtained a favorable report, but I have obtained one as 

favorable (as yours.) 
They have a superior article, but ours is as good (as theirs.) 

EXERCISES. 

1. Supply the ellipsis in the foregoing examples. 

2. Analyze and parse. 

Note. — Observe that the first as in the equality is on adverb, the last a conjunc- 
tion. 



§81. ABJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 



Definition. — An adjective used without its noun may 
be called an adjective pronoun. 

Remark. — What, which, and their compounds, have been treated of 
as conjunctives, (§ 39 and § 40,) and what and which as interrogative 
pronouns, (§ 41.) 

Used without their nouns, they are strictly adjective pronouns ; 
yet the name given to them, as already noticed, is well established, 
and nothing can be gained by a change. The following is the list 
of those adjectives most frequently used as adjective pronouns : 



this, 


both, 


few, 


last, 


more, 


one, 


some, 


that, 


same, 


all, 


former, 


least, 


other, 


each, 


these, 


such, 


any, 


latter, 


most, 


another, 


either, 


those, 


many, 


first, 


less, 


own, 


none, 


neither, 



A very brief outline of the more important offices performed by 
each of these words, may be necessary to the student. 



I. THIS and THAT, 
This and that are used — 
(1.) With their nouns, 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 179 

EXAMPLES. 

I will take this book, and you may take that. 
That man may thrive, but never lives, 
Who much receives, but nothing gives. 

(2.) Without their nouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

This, i*y son, was dead, and is alive again. 

Certainly, this was a righteous man. 

This is the time, no more delay. 

This is the acceptable day. 

This know, also, that in the last days perilous times shall come. 

The truth is, (this or that,) he was present and witnessed the whole 

transaction. 
That was a generous deed. 

(3.) As a representative of a part of a proposition, an 
entire proposition, or several propositions. 

EXAMPLES. 



1 Tliis thy vaunt ; 



Give death his due, the wretched and the old; 
Let him not violate kind Nature's laws, 
But own man born to live as well as die." 

But know this, that if the good man of the house had known in 
what watch the thief would come, he would have watched, and 
would not have suffered his house to be broken open. 

The rule laid down is, in general, certain, that the King only can 
convoke a Parliament ; and this, by the ancient statutes of the 
realm, he is bound to do every year, and oftener if need be. 

(4.) In opposition to each other, this referring to the 
nearer or latter, and that to the more remote or former. 



EXAMPLES. 

This way and that the waving sails they bend. 
A body of this or that denomination is produced. 
I wil 1 go in this direction, and you may go in that, 
You may caU this man friend, and that brother. 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(5.) In opposition to other, 

EXAMPLES. 

Consider the arguments which the author had to write this, or de- 
sign the other, before you arraign him. 
You expect that, and I expect the other. 

II. THESE and THOSE. 

These is the plural of this, and those is the plural of 
that. They are used as directive adjectives, referring to 
plural nouns, expressed or implied. When used«in op- 
position to each other, the same law applies as was stated 
in respect to this and that, these referring to the nearer 
or latter, and those referring to the more remote or former. 

EXAMPLES. 

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

'T was war no more, but changed through the field, 
Those lift their swords, and these their bosoms yield ;• 
Nor less the rest, their intrepid chief retained, 
These urged by threats, and those by force constrained. 

III. BOTH. 

Both is a directive adjective, implying two together, as 
distinct from others. It may be used — 

(1.) With its nouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

Both principles are equally well founded. 
Both parties are to blame. 

(2.) Without its nouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

A certa'n creditor had two debtors, and when they had nothing 

to pay, he frankly forgave them both. 
He called James and John, and they both came. 
Abraham took sheep and oxen, and gave them to Abimaleck, and 

both of them made a covenant. 
If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 181 

To represc 
sitions. 



(3.) To represent two propositions, or parts of propo- 



EXAMPLES. 

He said that he would not injure his associates, nor disobey my 
orders, yet he has doue both. 

It will not be amiss to inquire into the cause of this strange phe- 
nomenon, that even a man of discernment should write without 
meaning, and not be sensible that he had no meaning, and that 
judicious people should read what hath been written in this way, 
and not discover the defect. Both are surprising, but the first 
mucii more than the last. 

(4.) To represent two adjectives* 

EXAMPLES. 

Some are young, and others are very beautiful, but she is both. 
Some are handsome, and others are clever, but he is both* 

(5.) Before two propositions, or phrases that have a 
joint reference. 

EXAMPLES. 

A speaker is placed under necessity of suiting himself to his audi- 
ence, both that he may be understood by them, and that his 
words may have an influence upon them. 

It is both more accurate, and proves no inconsiderable aid to the 
right understanding of things, to discriminate by different signs 
such as are different. 



IV. SAME. 

Same is a directive adjective, denoting identity, equality, 
or similarity ; always preceded by the directive the y denot- 
ing particularity. It is used — 

(1.) With its noun. 

E X A M P L E S . 

The same hand that supplies our daily wants, will sustain U3 in 

the hours of darkest affliction. 
The same truth that elicited my attention, will elicit yours. 

16 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) Without its noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

The book is the same. 

He returned the same uninjured. 

He forcibly took the same from me. 

The company was the same which had been dispersed. 

(3.) To represent a part or the whole of a proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

He states that he is able to pay his debts, and his neighbors state 

the same. 
He is regarded as an honest man, and his appearance indicates 

the same. 

(4.) To represent adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. 

Sarah is industrious, and Eliza is the same. 
His father became an outcast, and George is the same. 
Alexander became notorious, and the Corsican youth zealously 
sought the same. 

(5.) To represent an adverb. 

EXAMPLE. 
Charles is well off, and James i3 the same. 

V. SUCH. 

Such is a directive adjective, denoting likeness. It is 
used — 

(1.) With its noun. 

EXAMPL E S. 

I never saw such a procession. 
I have seen such men before. 

(2.) Without its noun. 

E X A M PLES.. 

We will give you such as we have. 

His intemperance is such that we have no hope of a reformation. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 183 

(3.) To represent the whole or part of a proposition. 

EXAMPLE. 

The true worshipers shall worship the Father in spirit and in truth, 
for the Father seeketh such to worship him. 

VI. MANY. 

Many is an adjective denoting a multitude, yet it may 
be used before a noun in the singular, if a comes be- 
tween it and tho noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfa tho med caves of Edom bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its fragrance on the desert air. 

Many shall come in my name, and shall deceive man. 

Thou shalt be a father of many nations. 

Not many wise men after the flesh, not many mighty, not many 
noble, are called. 

Many are the afflictions of the righteous. 

As many books as you take, so many shall be charged to your ac- 
count. 

So many laws argue so many sins. 

As many as were willing-hearted, brought bracelets. 

They are too many for us. 

VII. FEW. 

Few is an adjective denoting an indefinite number, 
yet not a multitude. 

EXAMPLES. 

Few men can bear great prosperity without exhibiting pride. 

There are few men upon whom we may rely for justice and re- 
muneration for the wrongs inflicted upon our race. 

Few individuals manifest more interest for its prosperity, than does 
she. 

Party is the madness of many for the gain of few. 

Many are called, but few chosen. 

Many were the pledges made, but few fulfilled. 

Few are the individuals who possess a more noble heart. 

Few are the practices which have a more destructive influence 
than this. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

VIII. ALL. 

All is an adjective denoting the whole. A substantive 
In the possessive case, or the directive adjective they may 
come between it and the substantive it modifies. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

All men are created equal. 

All efforts to educate the mind should be made in subserviency to 

the Christian religion. 
All learning is not knowledge. 
All men are not free,. 

(2.) 

All have not the same disposition. 

And Laban said, All that thou seest is mine. 

Thou shalt be all in all. 

He has no ambition at all. 

Has he any property at all ? 

All is well. 

Eoyalists, republicans, churchmen, senators, courtiers, patriots, all 

parties concerned in the allusion. 
All that ever came before me are thieves and robbers. 
All that come into the tent shall perish. 
All, in that day, shall call me blessed. 
All have not known the Father. 
All are not Israel who are of Israel. 
All are called, but few are chosen. 
Having arisen, he now intercedes for all. 

(3.) 

All the earth was filled with the glory of God. 

All the cattle in Egypt died. 

All Jerusalem, and all the regions round about, went out. 

All his property was sacrificed. 

They have done all their work. 

(4.) 

All, in the sense of wholly, is an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

He looked all around. 

He traveled all over the land, and was yet ignorant of its beauty, 
because he had not discernment, 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 185 



IX. ANY. 

Any is an adjective denoting an. indefinite number, 
usually implying only a small part, and sometimes only 
one. It is occasionally used in opposition to none, 

EXAMPLES. 

Any man who can not do that, must be wanting in knowledge. 

Have you any witnesses to that effect? 

Can you show us any good in that act? 

Have you any reason for a hope of immortality ? 

Is there any other man to whom I can entrust this business? 

(2.) 

And when ye stand praying, forgive, if ye have aught against any 

man. 
If any lack wisdom, let him ask it of God. 
Neither is there any that can deliver him out of my hand. 

(3.) 

Have you any books ? I have none. 

Do you wish to have any such friends ? I wish none. 

X. FIRST and LAST. 

These adjectives. are the superlatives, respectively, of 
fore and late. First denotes priority of time, position, 
rank, or condition. Last denotes the latest, following 
all others, utmost in importance, improbability, &c. They 
often contrast objects, an<l are sometimes used as adverbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

Adam was the first man. 
You will take a stand on the first floor. 
He held the first place in the affections of his countrymen. 
He is a man of the first qualifications. 
Demosthenes was the first orator of Greece. 
Dr. Anthon is the first writer of his age. 
His last hours were spent in misery. 

If her son had perished, her last days would have been rendered 
miserable, 



186 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



He was the last man who arrived, 

They went home last week. 

They are contending for principles of the last importance. 

You are the last man that I should consult. 

This is the last place in which I should expect to find you 

(2.) 

Bring the first that you can find. 

This is the first that I have seen in the States. 

These are the first I ever had. 

The last was very acceptable. 

He will not soon hear the last of that course of conduct. 

You can not have the last that I possess. 

Will you want the last ? 

(3.) 

The last shall be first, and the first last. 
The victor's laurels, as the martyr's crown ; 

The .first I hope, nor less the last I prize. 
First let us attend to the decision of our own consciences. 
Adam was first formed, and then Eve. 
Let ladies be seated first. 
At first we were a little daunted. 
He was last seen in Philadelphia. 



; XI. FORMER and LATTER. 

These adjectives are the comparatives, respectively* 
of fore and late. They often contrast objects. 

EXAMPLES. 

His former conduct was reprehensible. 

Learn from former age what were those principles that worked 
the ruin of States. 

The former part of his argument was not logical. 

The latter proposition may be admitted for the sake of the argu- 
ment. 

(2.) 

If the former statement is correct, the latter is also. 

Sublimity and vehemence are often confounded, the latter being 
considered a species of the former. 

A bad author deserves better usage than a bad critic. A man may 
be the former through the misfortune of a want of judgment, 
but he can not be the latter without that and an ill temper* 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 187 



XII. LESS and MORE, 

These words are of the comparative degree, and fre- 
quently used as adverbs as well as adjectives. 

EXAMPLES. 

00 

We are liable to suffer afflictions in a greater or les3 degree. 
The less difficulty we make, the less timible we shall have, 
More laborers are wanted immediately. 
They have more work than they can do. 
He has more property than he can manage. 

(2-) 

They have done less than I expected. 

The less a man has, the less he will have to take care of. 

We can do no more. 

He conquered his enemies ; he did more, he conquered himself, 

(3) 

You are less careful than you should be? 

They are less enterprising than formerly. 

A more beautiful landscape was never seen. 

Sfee is more indolent than I had supposed. 

As the light from the radiant sun of Benevolence is poured more" 
and more upon the darkness of selfishness, the opposition of the 
heart must, of necessity, increase in the same proportion. 



XIII. LEAST and MOST. 

These words are in the superlative degree, They are 
often adverbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

0-) 

The least disttvrbance creates alarm. 
They can not bear the least opposition. 
The most blame was attached to his associates. 
Most men are prone to estimate themselves as highly as others can 
estimate them. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

(2-) 

The least is too great. 

The least you say will be misconstrued to your injury. 

The most of us are of that class who have had to carve our own 

fortunes. 
The most we can do is to provide against future emergencies. 

(3.) 

The lea&t influential men are engaged in his service. 

He has the least practical application of any man that I ever saw. 

The most laborious tasks were imposed. 

He is a most faithful advocate. 



XIV. OWN. 

Own, as an adjective, renders the term that it modifies 
emphatic. It is very often used without its noun. It is 
always preceded by a substantive in the possessive case. 

EXAMPLES. 

They will fall by their own devices. 

We must labor diligently fcr our own improvement. 

This is my own property. 

He has his own failings. 

(2) 

He came to his own, and his own received him not. 
Your own is in as bad a dilemma as mine. 



XV. ONE. 

This adjective, used as a noun, has a regular plural, and 
is used in the possessive case. It is often used indefi- 
nitely, to imply some or any. It is used in opposition to 
other, and another, and reciprocally with the same words. 
It is also used with another, to denote an average. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 189 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

There is one hope, one Lord, one baptism. 
You will one day repent such base ingratitude. 

(2-) 

Every one ought to know that. 

No one can understand our embarrassments. 

It is all one to me. 

The great ones of the earth exercise authority over you. 

They came with the little ones. 

It will soon be one o'clock, (one hour of the clock.) 

One's expectations may easily be blasted. 

(3.) 

I turn from one side to the other, but find no rest. 

The one seeks his own gratification ; the other the good of the 

universe. 
All rational or deductive evidence, is deduced from one or the 

other of these sources. 
Either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will 

hold to the one and despise the other. 
One man hates what another man loves. 
One looks this way, and another that. 

(4-) 

Let us respect one another. 

We should learn of one another, 

(5.) 

They are worth, one with another, about one dollar per head. 
We receive, one day with another, all that we deserve. 



XVI. OTHER. 

This adjective, as a noun, has a regular plural, and is 
used in the possessive case. It is used in opposition to 
some, and reciprocally with each. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

Study the Latin and the Greek, and acquire as much other learning 

as you can. 
We were at Albany the other day. 
The other side has the best of the argument, 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2) 

Whosoever shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the 

other also. 
They can expect no other from me. 
The fool and the brutish person die, and leave their wealth to 

others. 
What do ye more than others ? 
The confusion arises when the one will put his sickle into the 

other's harvest. 

(3.) 

Some fell among thorns, but others upon good ground. 
Some are learned, others ignorant. 

(4-) 

They rejoice in each other's society. 
They asked each other of their welfare. 
They labor for each other's prosperity. 



XVII. ANOTHER. 

This adjective is compounded of one and otJier, has a 
possessive case, and is used reciprocally with one, as 
before shown. 

EXAMPLES. 

0-) 
We intend to purchase another farm. 
They would like another favor. 

(2.) 

Let another praise thee, and not thy own lips 
If we grant one favor, another will be demanded. 
Some have one failing, and some another. 
We ought to assist one another. 



XVIII. NO or NONE. 

This adjective is a compound of no (not) and one. 
None was formerly used before nouns, but modern usage 
requires no when the noun is expressed, and none when 
the noun is suppressed. 'No is often used as an adverb, 
and is equivalent to a proposition when used in reply to 
an interrogation, 



ADJECTIVE PRONOTTMS. 1()J 

EXAMPLES. 

0-) 

No man can handle pitch and not besmear his hands. 
They have no hope of success. 

(2.) 

We want none of your folly. 
Has he gone ? No. 
No, no, I do not object. 

XIX. SOME. 

This adjective implies an indefinite number. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

Bring some apples. 

Some men are so fond of society, that they are never easy, unless 

they are with the multitude. 
He has gone into the country some fifty miles. 

(20 

Some are engaged in merchandize, others in farming. 

We consumed some of our provisions, and the rest was given ta 

the poor. D 

Some call for one thing, and some for another, 

XX. EACH. 

This adjective is distributive, implying the whole taken 
separately. 

EXAMPLES. 

do 

He gave each man changes of raiment. 
Each one lent some aid to the enterprise. 
Simon and Levi took each man his sword. 

(2.) 

Each was fully prepared for the conflict. 

They tested each other's knowledge of language. 

Let each esteem others better than himself. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



XXI. EITHER. 

This adjective denotes an alternative. It frequently 
relates to two phrases or propositions connected by or, 
and relates equally to both persons or things, 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

It can be found on ei'her side. 
Either one will answer my purpose. 

(2.) 

Take either of them at your pleasure. 
I do not expect either. 

(3.) 

Unless either his own good, or the good of the universe, demand 
government, the relation of owner can not confer the right to 
govern. 

Partiality consists in giving the preference to certain interests, on 
account of their being either directly the interests of self, or so 
connected with self-interests as to be preferred on that account. 



XXII. NEITHER. 

This adjective is compounded of not and cither. It is 
frequently used before two phrases or propositions con- 
nected by nor, and relates equally to both. Neither, in 
the sense of and and not, is a conjunction. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

An upright judge inclines to neither party. 
I can favor neither proposition. 

(2.) 

Neither of us was absent. 

Have you my knife or pencil ? I have neither. 



ADVERBS. 193 

(3.) 

He opposes neither the one nor the other. 

Neither the counsels of wisdom, nor the authority of law, have 
availed to reclaim him. 

(4-) 

Ye shall not eat it, neither shall ye touch it, (and ye shall not 

touch it.) 
The eye that saw him shall see him no more, neither (and) shall 

his place (not) behold him any more. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Analyze the sentences given under these divisions. 

2. Parse all the adjective pronouns, &c. 



§82. ADVERBS. 



Specification. — Adverbs may be divided into ten 
classes : of manner, time, place, direction, degree, as- 
sertion, denial, doubt, interrogation, and number. 

Note. — In the following exercises, the definitions are given, a few examples of 
adverbs under each definition, and a sentence or two showing their use in con- 
struction. The student should write other examples. 

Definition 1. — Adverbs of manner are such as show 
how an act is performed. 

EXAMPLES. 

gently, justly, judiciously, well, 

wisely, smoothly, implicitly, ill, &c. 

Time flies swiftly He converses agreeably. 

Definition 2. — Adverbs of time are such as show 
when an act was, is, or is to be, done. 
17 



194 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

EXAMPLES. 



anciently, already, 
formerly, recently, 
immediately, since, 
boob, ago, 

rarely, instantly, 



hitherto, again, when, 

henceforth, now, then, 

erelong, weekly, till, 

always, annually, early, 

ever r seldom, betimes. 



daily, heretofore, never, sometimes, seasonably. 

Rise early. Such an occurrence rarely happens. 

Definition 3. — Adverbs of place are such as show 
where an action was performed. 

EXAMPLES. 

here, where, there, somewhere, elsewhere, away, yonder. 
Where are they ? Yonder comes the powerful king of day. 

Definition 4. — Adverbs of direction are such as show 
in what direction an action tends. 



above, 
below, 



up, 
down, 



EXAMPLES. 

upward, backward, outward, 

downward, forward, homeward. 



The course of the virtuous man is onward and upward. 
Advancing rapidly onward, we soon came up with the enemy. 

Definition 5. — Adverbs of degree are such as show„ 
in a general manner, how much. Adverbs of this class 
modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and proposi- 
tions. 





EXAMPLES. 






much, 


very, altogether, 


equally, 


merely, 


wholly, 


greatly, all, 


so, 


nearly, 


little, 


completely, exceeding, 


as, 


almost, 


fully, 


entirely, excessively, 


scarcely, 


only, 


enough, 


perfectly, immeasurably, 


hardly, 


partially, 


too, 


totally, infinitely, 


barely, 


partly. 



They were fully satisfied. 



It is nearly completed. 



ADVERBS. 195 



Definition 6. — Adverbs of assertion are such as ex- 
press an assertion to an action. 



EXAMPLES. 

truly, doubtless, indeed, amen, certainly, 

verily, undoubtedly, yes, forsooth, positively. 

The truly wise and good are indeed happy. 
It is certainly the case. 

Definition 7. — Adverbs of denial are such as express 
an opposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

no, nay, not, nowise. 

He will in nowise go. They are not students. 

Definition 8, — Adverbs of doubt are such as imply 
uncertainty, 

EXAMPLES. 

perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure. 

Perhaps they will come. 

He turned aside, that haply he might find the road. 

Definition 9. — Adverbs of interrogation are such as 
are used in asking questions, 

EXAMPLES. 
why, how, when, where, whence, &c 

WVky is thk ? When will you go ? Whence comest thou ? 

Adverbs of cause are such as indicate a conclusion. 
They are therefore and wherefore. 

EXAMPLES. 

You are penitent, therefore I forgive you. 

He was a man of wisdom, wherefore he was respected. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 10. — Adverbs of number are such as im- 
ply number in respect to the order of things. 

EXAMPLES. 

first, secondly, thirdly. 

First the musicians, secondly the clergy, and thirdly the citizens, 
moved in the procession. 

Remark 1.— Many adverbs admit of comparison in the same man- 
ner that adjectives are compared. 

EXAMPLES. 

soon, sooner, soonest; 

frequently, more or less frequently, most or least frequently. 

Compare the adverbs in the following list : 
justly, wisely, carefully, carelessly, loosely, ably, manly, mightily. 

Remark 2. — Many adverbs perform the office of connectives, at 
the same time that they are adverbial, and when thus used they are 
called conjunctive adverbs, 

EXAMPLES. 

They passed us after we left the Fountain House. 
They have done the work as they agreed to do it. 
We must comply with your requests, since we are dependent on 

your favors. 
I can not leave till you take my place. 
They will stay until we return. 
I shall go when a convenient opportunity presents. 

' Remark 3. — When any word, that has been classed as an adverb, 
performs the office of any other part of speech, it must be parsed in 
accordance with the office it performs. 

EXAMPLES. 

The then existing faction produced great excitement. 
We have delayed an answer till this moment. 
The whole argument rests on this perhaps. 
I had not seen you in a great while. 
We have heard of his whereabouts. 



PREPOSITIONS. 197 

Remark 4. — An adverb was defined to be a word used to modify 
a verb, adjective, or other adverb ; but any noun or phrase used to 
modify one of these classes of words is an adverb. Yet, in a particu* 
lar analysis, each word is to be separately parsed, and its office spe- 
cified. 

EXAMPLES. 
They went home last Monday. They have gone to New-York. 

Remark 5. — A phrase used as an adverb, may have adverbs modi- 
fying it. Some authors have fallen into the error of making adverbs 
modify prepositions. But the examples they adduce simply show 
that an adverb modifies a prepositive phrase, which is itself an adverb. 

-EXAMPLES. 

They returned long before night. (When ? Before night. How 

much before night? Long before night.) 
It was jws^ above the horizon. 
Such a doctrine is far from receiving my assent. 

EXERCISE. 

Return to examples in Part I., (§ 8,) and parse all the adverbs in 
the section. As many adverbs in other exercises may be parsed as 
may be necessary to make the office of the adverb familiar. 

In parsing adverbs apply, the following 

rule: 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 



§83. PREPOSITIONS. 

Remark 1. — The preposition connects some word or phrase to a 
preceding word, which the former is designed to modify. 

Definition. — The modified word is called an antece- 
dent, and the modifier is called a consequent. 

EXAMPLES. 
We came from Albany to Chicago. They ran over the fields. 



ws 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



Remark 2. — The antecedent terra may be a noma, a pronoun,, a 
verb, or an adjective. The consequent may he a nouu, a pronoun, a 
verb in the infinitive mode, a phrase, an adjective, or an adverb used 
as a noun. 

EXAINfF^E-S^.. 

Men of good m'nds never engage in trifles. 

We sent them for the books. 

lie went for my brother. 

Forgetful of their own misfortunes, they sought to relieve others* 

They sent after Mm; 

They commanded us to depart. 

Is there a prospect of your leaving soon? 

f hey do-nothing in -rami. 

We will, at once, comply with your demands. 

The following list embraces most of the words used as preposi*- 
tkms; but let it be remembered, that when any of them perform' a 
different office from- that contemplated in the definition of the pre- 
position, they are not then prepositions. 



about, 


along, 


for, 


to, 


above} 


betwixt, 


from, 


to ward s? 


across, 


beyond, 


in, 


under, 


around. 


hy, 


into, 


underneath, 


at, 


before, 


of, 


until, 


athwart, 


behind, 


on, 


unto, 


after, 


below, 


over, 


up, 


against, 


beneath, 


round, 


upon, 


amid or 


Beside- or 


since, 


with, 


amidst, 


besides, 


through, 


within, 


among or 


between, 


throughout, 


without, 


amongst, 


down, 


till, 


worth. 



Remark 3. — It should be observed, that each preposition has, be- 
sides its connecting office, a signification of its own, and that signi- 
fication varies in various positions 

We annex a few examples, showing some of the various meanings 
©f by and for : 



By denotes, 1st — nearness. 
" " 2d— an agent. 

" " 3d — continuing. 



4th— at present. 

5 th — passing. 

6th — according to. 



He stands by me. 
The city was destroy- 
ed by fire. 
He remained in that 

city by the space of 

three years. 
By this time we had 

all left. 
We entreated him day 

by day. 
That fact was made 

evident by his own 

accounts 



For 


denotes, 


1st — in place of. 


tt 


66 


2d — in exchange of. 


n 


(i 


3d — in the character of. 


66 
66 

it 


a 
a 


4tli — towards. 
5th— foe the sake of. • 
6th — beuefic'al to. 
7th — in pursuit. 



PREPOSITIONS. 199 

By denotes, 7th — on or in. They go by stage. 

« M 8th — in store. He has a cask of wine . 

by him. 
" " 9th — the means or instrument. The work was done 

by myself. 
" " 10th — on hand. He has the money by 

him. 
* " 11th — quantity, measure, &c. They sell cloth by the 

yard. 

The attorney is empowered 

to act for his principal. 
He quit the profession of law 

for that of a clergyman. 
Let him go for an ungrateful 

man. 
They are bound for home. 
He did it for my benefit. 
It is for your health. 
She has come for us. 
8th — against. The application of cold water 

is a good remedy for the 
head-ache. 
" ** 9th — by reason of. He has been selected for his 

worthiness. 
a " lOlh — reception. I am prepared for you. 

" " 11th — for the space of. He traveled for three days. 
u " 12th — toward. He has an inclination for drink. 

" " 13th — in favor of. He is for the support of the 

present administration. 
" " 14th — in order to obtain. He writes for money. 
" " 15th — for the use of. It is good for no other purpose. 

Remark 4. — Save and except are usually classed with prepositions ; 
but they are, really, verbs in the imperative mode, and have not the 
remotest alliance, in signification, to prepositions. 



EXAMPLES. 

Israel burned none of them, save Hazor only. 
Of the Jews, five times received I forty stripes, save one. 
They have all done the work, except Charles. 
Except je repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

Remark 5. — Respecting, saving, excepting, bating, and touching, 
are usually classed among prepositions ; but they are, really, parti- 
ciples, describing nouns expressed or implied, and are to be so parsed, 
unless they so far lose their verbal force as to become adjectives^ 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

His conduct respecting us, is commendable. 

Respecting the resources of the country, I know but little. 

Remark 6. — When any of the words, classed as prepositions, are 
used without the consequent term of relation, they are called adverbs 

EXAMPLES. 

I saw him come up and go in. 

He stepped round and got out at the window. 

I saw them pass by. 

On looking up she saw a cloud. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Analyze and parse each example in the foregoing exercises. 

2. Return to Part I., (() 9,) and parse the prepositions. 
In parsing the prepositions, apply the following 

rule: 

Prepositions connect words, and show how the consequent modi- 
fies the antecedent. 



§84. 

Remark. — Certain constructions are given in this place, not be- 
cause they properly belong under this head, but because they are, 
usually, considered as elliptical of the preposition. These may be 
embraced under two 

RULES. 

I. Nouns denoting time, space, value, quantity, measure, or direc- 
tion, may modify verbs and adjectives without a connecting prepo- 
sition. 

EXAMPLES. 

He went last month. 

The boy is nine years old. (Years modifies old.) 

He traveled fifty miles yesterday. 

It is worth ten dollars. (Worth, an adjective, modified by dollars.) 

It weighs ten or fifteen pounds. 



PREPOSITIONS. 201 

Remark 1. — In any construction where the sense will be obvious 
without the use of the preposition, it is not required. Upon this 
principle, the noun home, following verbs of motion, and denot- 
ing to home, does no admit of a preposition to connect it to the verb. 
Upon the same principle, the words like, near, and nigh, whether 
used as adjectives or adverbs, are usually modified by substantives, 
without a connecting preposition ; and the adjective worthy is occa- 
sionally thus modified. 

EXAMPLES. 

They came home in haste last night. 

He comes near your place. 

It looks just like him. 

A tall tree was nigh the place of his interment. 

The subject is worthy your attention. 

He is worthy your confidence. 

II. The verbs ask, teach, choose, render, make, promise, allow, - 
pay, offer, bring, build, sing, find, set, send, get, and a few others, 
may be modified by a noun or pronoun, denoting the person, without 
a connecting preposition, provided the noun or pronoun comes be- 
tween the verb and its recipient ; but if it comes after the recipient, 
the preposition is required. 

EXAMPLES. 

They asked me the reason of my sadness. 

Teach me the knowledge of the law. 

Choose him a suitable companion. 

He rendered them good for evil. 

Can you make me a pen ? 

He promised us some present. 

Allow me the privilege of accompanying you. 

They paid us the money. 

They offered us gold. 

They brought us what we called for. 

Will you build us a house 1 

She sung us a song. 

You can find us such things as we may need. 

He set his children good examples. 

We will send your son the goods. 

We must get you a new book. 

Remark 1. — Let it be noticed, that this noun or pronoun, denoting 
person, and placed between the verb and its recipient, is not itself a 
recipient. If we wish to change these verbs to the passive voice, 
the recipient must be made the subject of the verb, and the inter- 
vening noun or pronoun modifies the verb, with or without a cqa« 
necting preposition. 



202 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 



The reason of my sadness was asked me. 
Let the knowledge of the law be taught me. 

In the same manner, change the remaining examples* 

Remark 2. — Some have asserted, and endeavored to maintain, that 
in changing this class of verbs to the passive, either the recipient, or 
the intervening noun or pronoun, may be made the subject of the 
verb. Now, though reputable authors may be adduced in confirma- 
tion of this practice, yet we must be permitted to insist, that when- 
ever, in changing the vei'b from the active to the passive, any other 
than the recipient is made the subject of the verb, violation is done 
to a fundamental principle of language. Let us test the correctness 
of the construction claimed, by inserting a few 

EXAMPLES. 

Can you make me a pen? 
Can I be made a pen ? 

Can you bring me a glass of water ? 
Can I be brought (to) a glass of water ? 

T. Marshall sent me a slave. 

I was sent a slave by T. Marshall. 

(Surely, Mr. C. was made a slave without much resistance, not- 
withstanding his Anglo-Saxon origin.) 

Give me a book. 

Let me be given (to) a book. 

Hand him a candle. 

Let him be handed (to) a candle. 

It is granted, that in a few instances, the change may not appear 
as ridiculous as the examples just given ; but these examples show- 
that when the intervening noun or pronoun is made the subject, it 
is done in violation of principle. No matter how numerous or how 
respectable may be the authors adduced in support of the practice 
we are now condemning, it is the grammarian's business to seek out 
fundamental principles of language, and urge their adoption. It is, 
surely, quite absurd for the grammarian to collect grammatical 
blunders, and errors of authors, and then make rules and exceptions 
by scores, to cover such blunders and errors. 

Remark 3. — The noun or pronoun, denoting the person, may be. 
and often is, the recipient of the verbs in the rule ; but the construc- 
tion clearly indicates the fact. 



INTERJECTIONS. 203 

EXAMPLES. 

They sent me for the water. 
They found him in the ditch. 

Remark 4. — The verbs name, call, constitute, make, choose, and 
some others, sometimes take an additional noun, explanatory of the 
recipient, and agreeing with it in case. This is to be carefully dis- 
tinguished from the construction indicated by the rule. 

EXAMPLES. 

They named him Joseph. % 

We call her a noble woman. 
The committee constituted him librarian. 
They chose him president by acclamation. % 

-In changing these verbs to the passive, the recipient must be made 
the subject of the verb, and the explanatory word must follow the 
verb, in the same case as the subject. 

EXAMPLES. 

He was named Joseph. 

She is called a noble woman. 

(Choose him door-keeper.) 

Let him be chosen door-keeper. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze and parse all the examples in this section. 



§85. INTERJECTIONS. 



Remark. — Any word, proposition, or sentence, expressing strong 
emotion, is an interjection. The following list embraces most of the 
words used only as interjections : 

ah, alas, fie, ha, halloo, oh, O, lo, pshaw, ho, welcome! 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§86. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Remark 1. — A large part of the words called conjunctions, were, 
in the original languages from which they were derived, verbs in 
the imperative mode. And though some of them, in their transition, 
may have lost much of their verbal force, yet others still retain it so 
far that it is very questionable whether they are not still to be re- 
garded as verbs. Particularly is this true of if, though, although, 
lent, and unless, which cau hardly be intelligibly explained upon any 
other than upon the principle of their being verbs. The verbs sup- 
pose, allow, permit, grant, and a few others, are often used in the im- 
perative mode, in the same manner as if, though, &c. If it be in- 
sisted, that if, tftough, unless, &c, have a conjunctive character, they 
also, at the same time, have a verbal force; and if we must call them 
conjunctions in obedience to custom, we must call them verbs in 
obedience to'truth. Perhaps they are conjunctive verbs. But, used 
in the sense of except, must be regarded as a transitive verb, in the 
imperative mode, and not as a conjunction. 

EXAMPLES. 

They were all present but my brother, who had left for Dansville 

that afternoon. 
They have all returned but one. 

The following is the meaning of some of the conjunctions, which 
will show their verbal character : 

And signifies to add to. 

Unless " to dismiss. 

Yet 'J to get. 

Still " to put. 

Though " to allow. 

But " to superadd. 
But (in the sense of except) to be out. 

If " to give or grant. 

Lest " to dismiss. 

Some of the conjunctions are adverbs, and retain their adverbial 
force, while they connect propositions. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Specification. — Conjunctions may be divided into ten 
classes : of addition, opposition, responding, inference, 
cause, condition, comparison, alternation, conjunctive ad- 
verbs, and conjunctive pronouns. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 205 

Definition 1. — Conjunctions of addition are such as 
express that something is added to that which precedes. 

EXAMPLES. 

and, also, further, that, 

though, likewise, furthermore, besides, 

as, farther, moreover, nay. 

Remark. — All of these, with the exception of and, though, and as, 
have an adverbial meaning as well as a conjunctive. 

EXAMPLES. 

I saw George and Susan. 

He was in so much of a hurry that he forgot his errand. 

I love society as well as you do. 

We have what we want, also what we do not want. 

Our friends were present, likewise our enemies. 

The facts are as I have stated ; farther than that, I know nothing 

of the case. 
I will pledge myself not to attend that convention ; further than 

that, I will not be pledged. 
You have disobeyed our orders; furthermore, you have shown 

contempt of authority. 
I desire your company ; besides, I am inclined to think you will 

need mine. 
They have been engaged in deeds of charity ; moreover, this is 

their customary business. 
He requested an interview ; nay, he urged it. 

Definition 2. — Conjunctions of opposition are such as 
express facts differing from those which precede. 

EXAMPLES. 

nevertheless, how T ever, but, . 

notwithstanding, howbeit, still, ^ 

When pride cometh, then cometh shame ; but with the lowly is 
wisdom. 

The desire of fame betrays an ambitious man into many inde- 
cencies ; still he is fearful that some of his actions may be 
thrown away in private. 

We have met with considerable opposition ; nevertheless we shall 
persist in our schemes. 

I came to you in the spirit of peace ; yet you did not receive me. 

I shall not oppose you ; however, I can not approve of your de- 
signs. 

They will wait for us ; howbeit, we do not want their company. 

It rains ; notwithstanding, I shall leave. 
18 . 



%06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 3. — ■Conjunctions of responding are sucli 
as connect correlative propositions, and respond to some 
word in the preceding proposition. 

The conjunctions used as contemplated under this division, will 
be found under the rule for the use of the conjunction. 

Definition 4. — Conjunctions of inference are such as 
show that a proposition is deduced as a legitimate infer- 
ence from what has preceded last. 

EXAMPLES. 

therefore, whence, then, hence, so. 

We could get no conveyance ; therefore we were obliged to stay. 
These facts are admitted; whence it follows, that judgment must 

be rendered for the plaintiff. 
You admit that you was wrong; then why not make confession? 
Man had sinned ; hence he had need of a Saviour. 
I could not obtain the price demanded; so I was obliged to take 

up with what I could get. 

Definition 5. — Conjunctions of cause are such as ex- 
press the cause of something preceding. 

EXAMPLES. 
as, since, because, for. 

We will embrace the present opportunity, as it is not likely we 
shall see you again. 

You had better stay with us, since your own home has been ren- 
dered so desolate. 

We object, because we believe that the principle is erroneous. 

We must make collections, for we have.. large demands to meet 
soon. 

Definition 6. — -Conjunctions of condition are such as 
express doubt or hypothesis. 

EXAMPLES. 

if, lest, unless. 

He will be permitted to return, if I rightly judge. 
We are fearful, lest we may have been deceived. 
Unless you labor, you will come to poverty. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 207 

Definition 7. — Conjunctions of comparison are such 
as express a comparison. 

They are than, expressing inequality, and as, expressing equality. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is better attended than his brother. 
He is as vain as his mind is empty. 

Definition S. — Conjunctions of alternation are such 
as express an alternative. 

EXAMPLES. 

or, nor, else, otherwise. 

It was a panther, a tiger, or a lion. 

It was not a panther, nor a tiger, nor a lion. 

Repent, else I will come to you quickly. 

You must get your lesson, otherwise you can not go. 

Definition 9. — Conjunctive adverbs are such as per- 
form the office of an adverb and conjunction at the same 
time. 

EXAMPLES. 

as, until, while, where, whither, 

after, when, since, whenever, wherefore, 

before, whereas. till, whilst, whereby, 

and others already mentioned in other lists. 

Do as (in the manner) you are commanded. 

He came after I had gone. 

He will not return before you will have finished the work. 

They left since I have been in the place. 

They will wait fill they can get their goods. 

The sceptre shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come. 

They work only when they please. 

You will be kindly received whenever you come. 

Yon will s'ay with us while you remain in the place. 

She visited the place where her last hopes were deposited. 

We love virtue wherever it may be found. 

I do not know whence it was derived. 

Definition 10. — Conjunctive pronouns are words that 
perform the office of a conjunction, and a pronoun, at 
the same time. 

Abundant illustrations have been given. 



208 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Remark.— It is not pretended, that the above classification is per- 
fect, nor that it is the best that can be made ; yet it will serve to 
give a pretty clear notion of the office performed by conjunctions. 
The old. division into copulative and disjunctive, has long since been 
abandoned by most of our best scholars. 



EXERCISES. 



1. Analyze and parse all the examples given above. 

2. Write similar examples. 



§87. WORDS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. 

Remark. — There are in the English language not far from thirty- 
eight thousand words; and the number is gradually increasing, as the 
advancement of the sciences and arts, and the progress of civilization, 
multiplying the wants of man, demand the coinage of new terms. 
Something more than one-half of these, come to us from the Anglo- 
Saxon, and quite a large proportion of the balance are from the 
Latin and Greek, but mostly from the Latin. Scientific names, and 
the euphemisms of the language, are mostly derived from the Latin 
or Greek, but the more common terms used in familiar and ordinary 
intercourse, are Anglo-Saxon. Our language, however, derives much 
of its copiousness, beauty, and richness, from the blending of several 
languages. 

Remark. — Though there are some thirty-eight thousand words in 
our language, the number of elements or roots from which these are 
derived are few, and the process of derivation from these is so 
simple that, if proper attention is bestowed on the origin and defini- 
tion of words during the first few years of a child's attendance at 
school, the meaning of almost every word in the language will be- 
come familiar. Reading and spelling words, without any attention to 
their separate or collective meaning, have been among the most 
common and most fatal errors of our schools. What advantage is to 
be attained by spelling page after page of words, whose signification 
is never inquired after, and whose presence never awakens thought, 
it is difficult to affirm. 

Specification 1. — Words are either primitive or de- 
rivative. 

Definition 1. — Primitive or radical words are such as 
are not derived from any others. 

EXAMPLES, 
faith, hope, joy, press, Jaw, solve, 



WORDS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. 209 

Definition 2. — Derivative words are such as are de- 
rived from the radicals, by the means of some word or 
part of a word placed before or after the radicals, to 
modify their meaning. 

EXAMPLES. 

faithful, pressing, compressible, 

faithfulness, pressed, incompressibility, 

faithless, express, repvessively, 

faithlessly. expressive, oppressiveness, 

insuppressive. 

Specification 2. — Radicals are either separable or in- 
separable. 

Definition 1. — A separable radical is one that can be 
separated from its derivative so as to be used alone. The 
words faith and 'pres£ in the examples above, are sepa- 
rable radicals. 

Definition 2. — An inseparable radical is one that can 
not be separated from its derivative so as to be used 
alone. The words fer, mit, pel, and sede, radicals of 
confer, permit, compel, and supersede, are inseparable 
radicals. 

Specification 3. — The parts joined with the radicals 
to form derivatives, are called prefixes and suffixes. 

Definition 1. — A prefix is a word or part of a word, 
placed before a radical to modify its meaning. 

Definition 2. — A suffix is a word or part of a word, 
annexed to a radical to modify its meaning. 

Remark 1. — A large proportion of the prefixes and suffixes are de- 
rived from the Latin and Greek languages. Those of most frequent 
occurrence are, in those languages, prepositions, yet many nouns, 
adjectives, and adverbs, enter as prefixes into the composition of nu- 
merous classes of words, and some of these are used as prefixes even 
more frequently than some of the prepositions are. Hence observe, 
that the prefixes are as truly radicals as those primitives are, with 
which they are joined. There are also a few prefixes of Anglo-Saxon 
origin, and a still smaller number derived from the French language. 
The suffixes have a variable origin, and, for the most part, are not 



210 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



entire words, but merely consist in one or more letters, that may be 
annexed to numerous radicals, modifying their meaning. Many of 
these terminal panicles are Latin or Greek terminations, or some- 
times some short word, so changed from the original, in the last 
letter or letters, as to satisfy the Anglo-Saxon ear ; that is, so as to 
agree vyith the terminal sounds peculiar to pure Anglo-Saxon words. 
Hence it will be perceived,, that there are two methods of deriving 
words; the first is by compounding entire words, and the second is 
by changing or annexing terminations, Thus, from mit, we have the 
compound derivatives admit, commit, permit, submit, &c. ; and from 
the word civil, we have the simple derivatives, civilize, civilized,, 
civilizing, civilizer, civilization, civilian, civilisl, civilly. 

Remark 2. — A thorough knowledge of primitive words, and the 
prefixes and suffixes by which the primitives are varied in their 
meaning, and also the rules of the orthographical connection of the 
prefixes and suffixes with their primitives, is indispensably necessary 
to accurate scholarship. This knowledge must be gained from those 
works that treat exclusively of " word, making." It is intended here 
only to give a general idea of prefixes and suffixes, and show how 
certain parts of speech may be derived from others by the use of the 
suffixes. 

FORMATION OF NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, AND AD- 
VERBS, BY SUFFIXES. 

NOUNS. 

Nouns are formed from nouns — 

1. By annexing eer, ier, ner, yer, zen, isan, ian, tian, 
©ss, ix, ine, ago-, age, ast, ist, ite, ate, or, oso, implying 
the person who. 

EXAMPLES. 

auctioneer, citizen, poetess, heroine, graduate, 

brigadier, partisan, executrix, chemist, senator, 

partner, Christian, virago, Canaanite, virtuoso, 

sawyer, chieftain, 

2. By annexing y, ry, cy, ary, ery, ory, age, ade, ate, 
ship, wick, ric, hood, head, dom, implying rank, state, 
place, jurisdiction. 

EXAMPLES. 

gluttony, statuary, parentage, citizenship, manhood, 

bigotry, cookery, cannonade, bailiwick, Godhead, 

infancy, armory, electorate, bishopries . kingdom.. 



WORDS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. 211 

3. By annexing less, ward, oid, implying respectively, 
deficiency, direction, resemblance. 

EXAMPLES, 
houseless, hoineward, spheroid. 

4. By annexing kin, ling, ule, cule, cle, icle, et, let, el r 
erel, ock, implying diminution. 

e x AM P L-E3, 

manakin, animalcule, article, rootlet, cockerel, 

duckling, tubercle, leveret, ruuel, hillock, 

globule, 

Nouns are formed from verbs — 

1. By annexing ant, ent, ar, ary, iary, or, on, ite, ivev 
ado, ard r ster, er, implying the person who. 

EXAMPLES. 

servant, adversary, collector, executive, huckster,, 

president, incendiary, glutton, desperado, assigner. 

beggar, visi or, favorite, drunkard, 

2. By annexing ion, tion, ation, cation, sion, ment, 
ament, iment, ure, ture, ature r iture, al, implying the act 
of, the thing wliicli. 

EXAMPLES. 

action, persuasion, impediment, signature-, 

fraction, chastisement, courpressure, expenditure, 

civilization, armament, mixture, refusal, 
fortification, 

Nouns are formed from adjectives — 

1. By annexing ty, ety, ity, ce, ice, ude, tude, it vide, 
ness, t, th, mony, cy, ship, dom, hood, an, implying qual- 
. ity, state of being, that which. 

EXAMPLES. 

novelty, justice, goodness, matrimony, wisdom, 

society, quietude, restraint, currency, falsehood,, 

reality, amplitude, truth, hardship, veteraru 

radiance, exactitude,. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. By annexing ist, implying the person who. 

EXAMPLES, 
royalist, legalist. 

VERBS. 

Verbs are formed from nouns — 

By annexing ize, tize, ise, e, en, ate, implying to make, 
to give. 

EXAMPLES. 

authorize, stigmatize, criticise, 

bathe, strengthen, originate. 

Verbs are formed from adjectives — 
By annexing ize, en, ate, se, fy, ify. 

EXAMPLES. 

civilize, soften, domesticate, 

cleanse, satisfy, justify. 

ADJECTIVES. 
Adjectives are derived from nouns — 

1. By annexing al, eal, ial, ual, ern, urn, iac, ic, tic, 
atic, etic, id, an, ean, ian, ine, ile, ar, ary, iary, uary, im- 
plying pertaining to, belonging to. 

EXAMPLES. 

central, demoniac, stupid, infantile, 

corporeal, patriotic, American, columnar, 

dictatorial, dyspeptic, Marmorean, missionary, 

habitual, emblematic, Christian, stipendiary, 

northern, dietetic, crystaline, suptuary. 
taciturn, 



WORDS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. 213 

2. By annexing y, ey, ly, ful, ose, ous, eous, ious, uous, 
ceous, aceous, aneous, oneous, itious, implying full of 
abounding in, possessing the quality of. 

EXAMPLES. 

sandy, operose, tumultuous, instantaneous, 

clayey, dangerous, setaceous, erroneous, 

costly, righteous, argeilaceous, cementitious. 

fearful, laborious, 

3. By annexing ly, ish, implying resemblance. 

EXAMPLES, 
friendly, foolish. 

3. By annexing less, en, some, able, implying respec- 
tively, privation, made of somewhat, in conformity to. 

EXAMPLES, 
priceless, silken, delightsome, fashionable. 

5. By annexing ed, implying was made. 

EXAMPLES, 
bigoted, bareheaded. 

Adjectives are formed from verbs — 

1. By annexing able, ible, end, implying that which 
may or can be. 

EXAMPLES, 
undeniable, responsible, reverend. 

2. By annexing ive, cry, ate, implying tending to. 

EXAMPLES, 
vindicative, compulsory, complicate. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are formed from adjectives by annexing ish, 
some, y or ly, implying somewhat, in a manner. 

EXAMPLES, 
newish, lonesome, goodly. 



§88. CAPITAL LETTERS, 

Capital letters are used to attract the attention to words 
that are especially important. 

RULES FOR THEIR USE. 

1. The first word in every sentence must begin with a 
capital letter. 

Remark, — This rule is designed to embrace imperative, interroga- 
tive, and exclamatory sentences, as well as declarative. 

2. Every name of the Supreme Being, and in general 
all proper names, such as the names of individuals, 
places, mountains, seas, the names of the months, days 
of the week, &c, must begin with a capital letter. 

3. A proper name used as an adjective, or an adjective 
derived from a proper name, must begin with a capital 
letter. 

4. The first word of every quotation, in the precise 
language of the author, should begin with a capital letter. 

5. Any word, designed to be especially emphatic, may 
begin with a capital letter. 

6. The first word in every line of poetry must begin 
with a capital letter. 



PART III. 



§89. SYNTAX, 

Definition. — Syntax treats cf the construction of pro- 
positions and sentences. 

Specification. — The proper construction of sentences 
requires a knowledge of the relation, agreement, govern- 
ment and arrangement of words. 

Remark. — Though each department of grammar may be contem- 
plated separately, by the experienced scholar, yet they must be ex- 
amined more or less in their connection, while giving an elementary 
knowledge of the science of language. Accordingly, the relation of 
words was the first thing attended to in this work, and various rules 
of agreement and government have been introduced as required. It 
now remains to take a more minute survey, and deal some more 
with the particulars of construction. 

Definition 1. — Relation is the dependence of words 
upon each other in all their varied modifying character- 
istics. 

Definition 2. — Agreement is the conformity of one 
word with another in some of its variations.* 

Remark. — Agreement relates to the pronoun, (§ 28,) the personal 
verb, (§ 29, Def. 2, Rule,) the explanatory substantive, (§ 30,) and 
in a few instances to adjectives. 

Definition 3. — Government is the power that one 
word has over another to cause it to assume some par- 
ticular form. (§ 34, Hules 2, 3, 4, &c.) 

Definition 4. — Arrangement is the position that words 
should occupy in a sentence, in conformity with estab- 
lished usages. 

Remark.— The position or arrangement of words will be pointed 
out under each rule. 



216 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 90. GENERAL VIEW OF PROPOSITIONS, 



Note. — It is not intended, in this part, to repeat definitions that must have beeft 
rendered familiar in the coarse of the preceding pages. 



1. The parts of a proposition are the subject and 
predicate. 

2. The essential elements of a proposition are a sub- 
stantive in the nominative case, and a personal verb. All 
other words are primary or secondary modifiers of the 
nominative as the principal word in the subject, or the 
verb as the principal word in the predicate. The per- 
sonal verb is the immediate modifier of its subject. 
Thus all other words of the proposition surround and 
modify the nominative — are introduced with reference 
to it. 



3. The words entering into the composition of a pro- 
position are, (1.) Substantives, (nouns and pronouns ;) (2.) 
Verbs, to express the state or condition of a substantive, 
as being or doing ; (3.) Adjectives, modifiers of substan- 
tives ; (4.) Adverbs, modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs ; (5.) Prepositions, connecting substantives 
and verbs to other words ; (6.) Conjunctions, connect- 
ing words to other words of the same class. 



4. A word, phrase, or proposition, may be a modifier ; 
but either, modifying a noun, is adjective; and modifying 
a verb, adjective, or adverb, is adverbial. 



5. A phrase or proposition may be modified the same 
as a single word. 



GENERAL VIEW OF PROPOSITIONS. 217 

The following is a complete classification of modifiers, 
so far as the proposition is concerned : 

f Substantive, 
(1.) Words, <j ^ective, 
^ Adverb. 

Prepositive substantive, 

f intransitive, 

I intransitive post adjective, 
T ~ . . intransitive post substantive, 

2.) Phrases, { Infinitive ^ tralls ; t ; ve of V e active voice, 

ar cip , | transitive of the passive voice, [voice, 
I transitive post adjective of the passive 
^transitive post substantive of the pass- 
ive voice. 

(3.) Pronominal proposition, (this is always adjective,) 
and 
Substantive proposition. 

6. The different modifiers of each part of speech, will 
be seen by the following outline. 



I. A substantive may be modified — 

(1.) By a substantive signifying the same thing as the 
modified substantive, and hence in the same case. 



EXAMPLES. 



Alexander, the copper-smith, was not a friend of the Apostle Paul. 
Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. 

The Franks, a. people of Germany, invaded France in the fifth cen- 
tury. 
The Prophet Elisha flourished in the days of Joram, King of-Israeh 
Cilecia, a country of Asia Minor, had for its capital Tarsus. 
Alexander is a student. 
Knowledge is power. 
Hope is the balance of life. 
He shall be called John. 
Stephen died a martyr. 
He became the slave of irregular habits. 

19 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) By a substantive signifying a different thing from 
the substantive modified, hence in the possessive or ob- 
jective case. 

EXAMPLES. 

Seek virtue's reward. 

My ancestor'' s virtue is not mine, 

A man's manners frequently influence his fortune. 

A mother's tenderness, and a father's care, are nature's gifts for 

man's advantage. 
The words of Solomon are words of wisdom. 
The memory of mischief is not desirable. 
The question in debate is a theme for much thought. 
Flowers of spring are emblems of childhood. 

(3.) By an adjective. 

EXAMPLES. 

John is a brave boy. 

A good man is a great man. 

Kind words will prevent angry thoughts. 

Wise men speak prudent words. 

The door was open* 

It tastes good. 

He feels sick. 

I remember eight. 

He drinks deep. 

He lies low in the cold ground. 

(4.) By a verb of the personal or impersonal form. 

EXAMPLES, 

The truly honest man knows nothing of the temptation to steal. 
He who seeks wealth to make him happy, knows nothing of the 

true source of happiness. 
He who has a motto to govern him, has a master to serve. 
The merchant gets money to purchase goods to sell the mechanic. 
James, having been deprived of the assistance of teachers, neglected 

his" studies. 
The ship, by launching out during the tempest, received much 

damage. 
The boy's kite having flozvn to the clouds, disappeared from his 

sight. 
The young merchant, being established in business, and wishing to 

succeed in the same, made uncommon efforts to furnish his cu»» 

tomers with whatever they desired. 



GENERAL VIEW OF PROPOSITIONS. 219 

(5.) By a preposition followed by a participial substan- 
tive phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

The habit of studying hard, is a desirable attainment. 

The anticipation ot'his escaping unpunished, incited to disobedience. 

The mere desire of becoming popular in the world, propels many 

a youth. 
The benefits of laboring industriously, are not few nor trifling. 

(6.) By a conjunctive pronominal proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

Those men who rely upon others to think for them, will invariably 

have barren intellects. 
That individual who abandons principle for the sake of pecuniary 

profit, is not worthy to be called a man. 
Many species of animals that once existed upon the earth, have 

lon<* since become extinct. 
That fountain which sends forth pure water, can not at the same 

time send forth bitter. 

IL An adjective may be modified — 
1. By an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

John is a very bad boy. 

It was an intensely interesting lecture. 

The man was miserably poor. 

The men were so mad that they almost raved. 

(2.) By a substantive in the objective case, usually, 
though not always, connected to it by a preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

ITe is zealous in a rrood cause. 
He was angry witn the boy. 
She was sleepy in the night. 
The lecturer was slow of speech. 
The tree is ten feet high. 
The road is six miles long. 
Tlie boy is Jive years old. 
The school is free two days longer. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(3.) By a verb in the infinitive mode. 



EXAMPLES. 

All are anxious to gain distinction. 
The boy was ambitious to become learned. 
He was ready to confess his mistake. 
They were curious to know the result. 

(4.) By a preposition followed by a participial sub- 
stantive phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 

He was desirous of becoming a scholar. 
They were active in subduing the rebellion. 
The man was kind in rendering us assistance. 
She was weary of watching the dawn. 

III. A verb may be modified — 

(1.) By a substantive in the objective case, as the re- 
cipient of the verb. This substantive may be, 1. A noun, 
2. A pronoun, 3. A proposition, or, 4. A substantive verb 
phrase. 

EXAMPLES. 



John struck James. The man cuts wood. 

Julia loves Jane. The boy feeds the lambs. 

2. 

John struck him. The man cuts it. 

Julia loves her. The boy feeds them, 

3. 

He says that he shall be here to-morrow. 

They declared that they would see the end of the trouble. 

He answered, that he expected to meet him. 

She guessed, that she should be out of town. 

4. 

They opposed our going home. 
She forbade his eating green fruit. 
They disliked his roving o'er the country. 
He concealed his being angry. 



GENERAL VIEW OF PROPOSITIONS. 221 

(2.) By a substantive, that is riot a recipient, in the 
objective case, usually, though not always, connected to 
the verb by a preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

He called to the man. He returned home. 

She went to the city. He went fifty miles. 

They cried for help. They have done us good service. 

The sun rises in the east. He gave me a good book. 

He traveled ten days. 

(3.) By a verb in the infinitive mode. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am inclined to accede to your proposition. 
She loves to sing. 

I was persuaded to engage in the discussion. 
It helps to make the number. 

(4.) By an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

She writes neatly. She will never see. 

He speaks fluently. The boy studies well, 

IV. Adverbs may be modified — 
(1.) By other adverbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

The letter was written very neatly. 
He spoke most admirably. 

(2.) By substantives connected to them by prepositions, 

EXAMPLES. 

He was emphatically of an independent turn of mind. 
That was left entirely out of the question. 

V. Prepositions are limited by the substantives which 
they connect to some antecedent word. 



MASS. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 1. — The distinction between the -eoni>ectmg force of the* 
preposition and the conjunction, when the latter connects words- 
only, is this: The preposition unites its meaning with the subsequent 
term of connection, constituting a phrase, which phrase is the modi- 
fier of the antecedent term ; whereas the conjunction merely con- 
nects the words, without uniting its meaning with either of the words 
©ounce ted* 

Remark 2. — The interjection has not "Been contemplated as firm- 
ing a constituent element of a proposition, since, though it expresses 
some sudden or strong emotion, it has not a grammatical connection 
with any element of the proposition. 

Remark 3 — Some doubt may exist as to the propriety of includ- 
ing the conjunction among the elements of a proposition, since the 
principle of language, usually given, is, that each part of a sentence 
connected by a conjunction, expressed or implied, always gives a dis- 
tinct sentence. Thus the following sentence would be called com- 
pound : "Such a proud, haughty, and ignorant man, can? never gain 
the confidence of the people." This, it is said, can be broken up 
into three sentences, commencing respectively with, Sneh a proni 
man, Such a haughty man, and, Such an ignorant man. and each hav- 
ing for its predicate, can never gain the confidence of the people. 
But this explanation gives a false exposition of the meaning; for, for 
aught the sentence affirms to the contrary, such a proud man may 
gahtthe confidence of the people, but, with the two additional ele- 
ments of character, haughtiness and ignorance, he can not do it. 
The sentence is compound in the modifiers of the nominative; but 
still there is bat one nominative, and the simplicity of the sentence 
is le'amed. 

Again, the following sentence is compound r "A. proudk haughty, 
or ignorant man, can never gain the confidence of the people." But 
wherein is it distinguished from the sentence examiued above V The 
answer is manifest ; the affirmation is made of a man, in the first in- 
stance, iuview of the three characteristics ascribed to him, taken con- 
jointly, and iu the absence of either, the afnrmaiiau is not made nor 
implied ; but, in the last example, the affmna'Hm is n&ade of the man 
in view of either of the three characteristics mentioned, separately 
applied. Hence, the last proposition can be broken up into three 
distinct propositions. Hence, also, it is a compound sentence. 

Ke?4ark 4. — But the existence of two or more nominatives does 
not necessarily imply a compound sentence. In the sentence, James 
and John attend school, it is affirmed that James attends school, and 
John attends school. That is, the sentence is susceptible of being 
broken up into these two, rendering it a compound. But in the sen- 
tence, James and John have chopped six cords of wood to-day, it is not 
affirmed that James has chopped six cords of wood to-day, nor thut 
John has done it ; but James and John together have done the work. 
The former sentence can be broken up into two propositions ■ b.^ 



SENTENCES. 223 

the lutter can not. What is the peculiarity that distinguishes 
them ? Manifestly, in the first sentence, the affirmation is made of 
James and John separately, and in the second, the affirmation is 
made of them conjointly. 

Hence, we arrive at the general principle, that when the parts of a 
sentence, connected by conjunctions, expressed or implied, are taken 
separately, they can be broken up into distinct propositions ; but when 
taken conjointly, they can not be thus broken up. Hence, also, the ex- 
istence of a conjunction does, not imply the existence of a compound 
sentence. 



§91, SENTENCES, CLAUSES, &c. 

SENTENCES. 
(1.) Sentences are simple (§ 3) or compound (§ 13.) 

(2.) The propositions of a compound sentence are con- 
nected by conjunctions, conjunctive pronouns, or conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

(3.) The compound sentence is composed of as many 
propositions as there are personal verbs expressed or im- 
plied, and no more. Thus, the following sentence is com- 
pound, because it contains three propositions, though two 
of them are adjective : 

He who does not cultivate his intellectual powers in conformity 
to the laws of his being, incurs a responsibility which is fearful 
to contemplate. 

Here the primary proposition is, "He incurs a respon- 
sibility;" but the subject is modified by a proposition 
used as an adjective, and the recipient of the predicate 
is similarly modified. 

Remark. — When, in the classification of compound sentences, 
(§ 46,) the first kind is called compound subject and simple predicate, 
it is meant that the same fact is predicated of several particulars, taken 
separately. If the several nominatives are taken conjointly, so that 
the particular fact can not be predicated of each separately, the -sen- 
tence is simple. 



224: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CLAUSE. 

Definition.— A clause is a subdivision of a compound 
sentence, containing one or more personal verbs. 

Note — The phrase is a collection of words less than a proposition ; a clause ia 
one or more propositions of a compound sentence. This distinction should be 
carefully noticed by the student 

THE ABSOLUTE WORD OR PHRASE. 

The substantive in the absolute case, when standing 
alone, is simply an absolute word ; when it has any modi- 
fiers connected with it, an absolute phrase is produced. 
The absolute word or phrase never changes the sentence 
from simple to compound. If the sentence contains a 
single proposition, and an absolute word or phrase, it is 
to be analyzed as a simple sentence, composed of a pro- 
position and an absolute word or phrase. The phrase 
is to be analyzed separately, 

IDIOMS. 

Definition. — An idiom is a peculiarity of expression 
or phraseology belonging to any particular language. 

Remark 1 . — Idioms pertain to words and constructions. Any words, 
forms of words, phrases, or arrangements, established by the au- 
thority of good writers, or speakers, constitute English idioms; 
words, forms of words, phrases, or arrangements, not authorized by 
good writers or speakers, constitute vulgarisms. Much of the lan- 
guage of low wit and blackguardism, used in low society, is of tho 
latter kind. He who would retain a mind of purity, and associate 
with the pure, should most studiously avoid all vulgarisms. 

Remark 2. — There are idioms in the English language, that find 
their similar or parallel in other languages; and, again, there are 
others that belong peculiarly to the English. When the term idiom 
is used hereafter in this work, it will, generally, refer to the latter, 
and not to the former. 



SYMBOLS OF PUNCTUATION AND THEIR USE. 225 



§ 92. SYMBOLS OF PUNCTUATION AND THEIR USE. 



Definition.— Symbols in grammar are conventional 
marks, used in composition, to direct the attention to some 
grammatical relation, or to some rhetorical or other pe- 
culiarities. 



Remark 1. — The modern system of punctuation was unknown to 
the ancients. Aristophenes, the Alexandrian grammarian, used a 
few points, but nothing like a complete system. The present sys- 
tem was invented by the ingenious Mauritius, a learned printer, 
who lived at Venice, This invention was introduced about the com- 
mencement of the sixteenth century. 

Remark 2. — It is, perhaps, impossible to lay down rules of punctu- 
ation that shall secure perfect uniformity in the use of the various 
symbols of punctuation. Many particulars in punctuation, may be 
varied to suit the taste of the writer. Hence some want of unifomity 
may, naturally, be expected ; but a much greater variation, undoubt- 
edly, depends on the fact, that few scholars are trained in punctua- 
tion in the early part of their grammatic course. Hence, also, most 
of punctuation is customarily left to printers, who punctuate by the 
ear , and not by rule. It has been the object, in this treatise, to em- 
brace punctuation, when required, in each successive exercise. The 
few rules that have been given, will now be repeated, and others 
will be added, in order to make this part of our exercises as com- 
plete as the limited space alloted to this part of the work will per- 
mit. 

Remark 3. — We have used the term punctuation in a much wider 
sense than is usually given to it, as embracing all the symbols used 
in pointing or dividing any portions of composition . 

Specification 1. — The symbols of punctuation may 
be divided into inclusives, directives, orthographical, ety- 
mological, syntactical, orthoepical, and rhetorical. 

Specification 2. — The inclusives are, the quotation 
points [""], parenthesis (), brackets [J, and brace *iii*. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Quotation points are used to include a passage taken 
from some other author. 

EXAMPLES. 

When, in parting for battle, he softly would say, "'T is to shield 
thee I fight." : : . . . ' . f 

With calm resignation, he meekly exclaims, "This is the end oi 
earth." 

2. The parenthesis is used to include some phrase or 
proposition, which serves to explain some fact or circum- 
stance, not immediately connected with the principal 
thought. 

EXAMPLE. 

To others do (the law is not severe) 

What to thyself thou wish est to be done. 

Kemark.— The clause included in the parenthesis, is called a pa- 
renthetic clause, and should be read with a weaker tone of voice than 
the rest of the sentence. Instead of the parenthesis, a parenthetic 
clause is often marked by a comma and dash, both before and alter it. 

EXAMPLE. 

The language of the speaker,— and he is a philosopher,— was in 
these words. 

3. The bracket is used to include one or more explana- 
tory words, not absolutely necessary to the sense, but re- 
quired to prevent tlie possibility of mistaking the appli- 
cation of a word. 

EXAMPLE. 

He [Mr. Webster] thought differently. 

Remark.— The parenthesis and bracket are often used in mathe- 
matics to include several terms that are to be taken together. When 
•both are required, the bracket includes the larger, and the parenthe- 
sis the smaller. 



SYMBOLS OF PUNCTUATION AND THEIR USE. 227 

4. The brace is used to include words, phrases, or 
sentences, that are to be contemplated in connection ; 
and is also used to connect a triplet — three lines of po- 
etry, having the same rhyme. 



EXAMPLE. 

Three limpid fountains from the cliffs distil, 
And every fountain forms a seve 
In mazy windings wandering dov 



ie cliffs distil, i 
vera! rill. > 

down the hill. ) 



Specification 3.- — Directives are references, index, &c. 

1. References. — The asterisk [*], the obelisk [f], the 
double dagger [J], the parallel [j|], letters, and figures, 
direct the reader to some notes or remarks at the mar- 
gin or bottom of the page. 

2. The index [|y] directs to some word, phrase, or 
sentence, deemed of special importance. 

Specification 4 — The etymological symbols are, the 
diaeresis [*■], hyphen [-], apostrophe ['], and caret [/J. 

1. The diaeresis is placed over the latter of two vowels, 
to denote that they are sounded separately. 

EXAMPLES, 
preeminent, cooperate, aerial- 

2. The hyphen is used at the end of a line, when a 
word must be divided so that one or more of its syllables 
shall stand at the commencement of a succeeding line. 
It is also used to connect compound words. 

EXAMPLES. 

The President shall receive the embassadors and other public min- 
isters. 

spelling-book, black-board. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. The apostrophe is used to indicate the possessive 
case of nouns. It is, also, used to denote the elision of 
one or more letters of a word. In the former use, it is 
etymological; in the latter, it is orthographical. 

EXAMPLES. 

The scholar's regard for his teacher's advice, was manifest on all 
occasions. 

Hearts, from which 'twas death to sever. 

4. The caret is used to point to the place where an 
omitted letter, or word, or number of words, should be 
inserted. 

EXAMPLE. 

books i 

The book of all is the Bble. 
A A 



§ 93. SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 

Specification. — Syntactical symbols are, the comma 
[,], semicolon [;], colon [:], period [.], dash [ — ], stars 
[**], section [§], and paragraph [f[]. 

Remark. — It is the use of the syntactical symbols that usually re- 
ceives the name of punctuation, though in this work the term is 
not thus restricted. 

Definition. — Syntactical punctuation is designed to 
show the relation of words, propositions, phrases, and 
sentences, to each other. 

Remark. — If the student wishes to make himself familiar with 
syntactical punctuation, he must learn his rules, write a number of 
examples in imitation of those given under each rule, and punctuate 
them. This will be a comparatively easy exercise, if punctuation 
has been studiously attended lo, from the commencement of the ex- 
ercises required. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 229 

I. COMMA. 

The comma is placed between the less important di- 
visions of a proposition or sentence. 

RULES. 

1. An adjective separated from the substantive which 
it modifies, unless that separation is effected by an inter- 
vening verb, or by an intervening adjective, must, with its 
modifiers, be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPL ES. 

(1.) 

Dependent on the mercies of God, we should consecrate our best 

affections to his service. 
The mingled tones of sorrow, like the voice of many waters, have 

come unto us from a sister State. 
Careful of your own interests, you should have a due respect for 

others' rights. 



(2.) 



That is hind. 

Our prospects are favorable. 

(3.) 

All social happiness is transitory. 

Many a man has learned, when too late, that character can be more 
easily lost than gained. 

2. An adjective following its substantive for the pur- 
pose of introducing words dependent upon it, must, with 
its modifiers, be set off by a comma. But if it follows 
its substantive for mere rhetorical or poetical effect, or 
as a term demanded by the action of a preceding verb, 
the comma is not inserted. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

They are men, able to meet their engagements. 
A questiou, antecedent to the one just proposed, demands your first 
consideration. 

20 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) 

I asked the airy sons of folly gay. 

Hope is my anchor, stedfast, sure, and strong, 

In many sorrows, and in trials long. 

(3.) 

This made him very agreeable. 
We thought her well disposed. 

Remark. — There are a few adjectives that necessarily follow their 
substantives ; but rule second is not intended to apply to them. 

EXAMPLE. 
He is a man like many others. 

3. An adverb separated from the word it modifies, or 
interrupting the close dependence of words upon each 
other, should, usually, be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

(I-) 

First, we will examine the main argument. 

Again, all are not, sufficiently, enlightened to perceive the force 
of these sublime truths. 

(2.) 

He has, undoubtedly, expressed himself in the most unmeasured 
terms. 

Remark. — An adverb placed between a principal verb and its aux 
iliary, is not set off by a comma, unless it is emphatic. 

4. A prepositive substantive modifier, separated from 
the word, or phrase, it modifies, or interrupting the close 
dependence of words upon each other, should be set off 
by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1) 

In the poems of Young, you will find the same thought suggested 

in a number of places. 
By your assistance, we can get along. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION, &31 

(2.) 

You are commanded, in the name of the people of the State of New 

York, to appear at my office. . - , ■ .. 

He has, within the last six months, sold seven thousand copies. 

5. A verb in the infinitive mode, separated from the 
word which it immediately modifies, or interrupting the 
close dependence of words upon each other, should, with 
its modifiers, be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES, 

Poor fool! the base and soulless worldling cries, to waste his 

strength for naught. 
They were fortunate men, so to have lived, and so to have diea.^ 
These truths seem to us, on the contrary, to lead the inquirer into 

the more immediate presence of the great Creator. 

6. A verb in the participial mode, separated from the 
word that it modifies, or interrupting the close dependence 
of words, should, with its modifiers, be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Returning to this country, he entered into the cool cloisters of the 

Armed w^th a miller's hat, and shoes, and stick, away he marches 

to Chelmsford. 
Chained in the market place, he stood. 
A very poor weaver applied to his master about three weeks since, 

begging earnestly for work, stating that he was in great want. 

7. A verb in the participial mode, following its subject, 
and having modifiers, or being emphatic, must, with its 
modifiers, be set off by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

The eldest son, being of a rambling disposition, went abroad. 
It is an hour, fitted to still the throb of every unruly passion. ^ 
The simple words, "Washington Family," chiseled in granite, 
surmounts the plain brick work. 



£32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. When an explanatory word has several modifiers, 
it must, with its modifiers, be set off by a comma. 



EXAMPLES. 

Genius and art, ambition's boasted wings, 

r Our boast but ill deserves. 

The Arrow, a sloop of war, had been lying all day becalmed, m 

mid ocean. 
Eiches, the great object of many, are only valuable for the good 

which may be done with them. 
Kindness to our fellows, the brightest gem of humanity, should be 

cultivated in youth. 
What has man, the creature of a moment, to be proud of. 

9. A substantive, used independent of a proposition, 
must, with its modifiers, be set off by a comma. 



EXAMPLES. 

Come to the bridal chamber, Death I 

Show pity, Lord ; O Lord, forgive. 

Men, brethren, and fathers, hearken ! 

Friends, Romans, countrymen ! lend me your ears. 

Sir, what must I do to be saved ? 

Turn your eyes in that direction, Mr. Garnet. 

Boatmen, do not tarry ! 

I '11 go, my chief, I 'm ready. 

10. If the words making up the subject of a proposi- 
tion, have a close dependence upon each other, and the 
subject at the same time is quite lengthy, a comma must 
be placed before the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

The adaptation of parts in the world of organic life, evinces the 
divine wisdom of nature's Architect. 

A variety of pleasing objects, charms the eye. 

The narrative of his dangers and escapes, is written in a most at- 
tractive style. 

11. A substantive phrase or proposition, especially if 
it is the subject of a verb, should be set off by a comma. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 233 

EXAMPLES. 

To comply with such a requirement, would be the height of folly. 

To smile on those whom we should censure, is to be guilty our- 
selves. 

To play with important truths, and to disturb the repose of es- 
tablished tenets, is too often the sport of youthful vanity. 

To be insensible to public opinion, or to the estimation in which 
we are held by others, indicates an ungenerous and ignoble 
spirit. 

To have a proper regard for public opinion, is one thing; to make 
that opinion our rule of action, is quite another. 

Remark. — When a substantive phrase or proposition, is in the pre- 
dicate following an intransitive verb, or is the recipient of a transi- 
tive verb, it should not be set off by a comma, unless the verb ia 
emphatic. 

EXAMPLES. 

The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 
You know not that all your hopes are blasted. 
Who can tell how much benefit will accrue to the world, by the 
labors of one godly man ? 

12. When the propositions, making up a compound 
sentence, have an immediate dependence upon each 
other, such that they could not be separated into distinct 
sentences without materially altering the construction, 
they are separated from each other by a comma. If, 
however, they are very shorty and very closely connected, 
the comma is not inserted. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1) 

You look upon this life, and upon this earth, and you derive frosj 

them, it may be, a very different impression. 
How many does meekness 6ubdue to a like temper, when they 

come into its presence. 
Faculties and powers are of little value, till they are brought into 

exercise, and directed to their proper objects. 

I had hailed the Tiber with ardor, and sought the 

Not only did that river recall the earliest antiquity, and a name 

rendered immortal in the finest poetry, but its banks were th«i 

theatre of the miracles of our religion, 



&34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When we go to ancient history, we are bewildered with the dif- 
ference of manners and institutions. 

" That will suit me," replied Van Campen ; "lam ready to meet 
any danger." 

"Honest friend/' said he, "how is your cause like to go to-day 7" 

(2.) 

I can go when you can. 

The goods are better than I supposed. 

13. When a conjunctive pronominal proposition sepa- 
rates a verb from its subject, a comma must be placed 
before the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

Those who can not endure rebukes, should be sparing in giving 

them. 
That patriotism which sinks self, is a noble virtue. 

14. When a conjunctive pronominal proposition fol- 
lows another proposition, a comma should separate the 
propositions, unless they are very short and closely con- 
nected. 

EXAMPLES. 

For what slaves are they, in whom an enlightened conscience does 

not bear sway. 
He seems to have a picture, which is calculated equally to raise' 

astonishment and delight. 
I speak not of the lettered tomb-stone, which is the voice of many 

of the dead speaking. 
What can we do to insure the success of that experiment, which 

our institutions are making upon the character of man. 

Remark. — Practice will be found often to deviate from the last 
two rules,, but they are yet believed to express the punctuation that 
is most frequently adopted, and certainly the most philosophical. 

15. When several words have a joint reference in con- 
struction, they are, with their modifiers, to be separated 
from each other by a comma. 



£V.\ TACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 2S£ 

£ XAMPLL:. 

The meagre "chronicles of ancltnt times are, mostly, filled with 

wars, battles, conquests, and revolutions. 
The useful determines the constitution, forms, and relation c 

bodies. 
They were bound bv blood, interest, feeling, hopes, and fears. 
They felt the emoiiuus of hope, gratitude, love, and admiration. 

16. "When only two words have a joint reference, the 
comma is not inserted, unless the words have modifiers* 
or are emphatic. 

E X A M PLES. 

a) 

Amid fear and anxiety, v«e spent a wearisome night. 
Life and dea'h were 'presented for my choice. 

A sua ml and delightful prospect was, suddenly, opened to our 
vision, 

(?) 

Prospered in business, and caressed by numerous friends, he soon 
fell into temptations, too strong for his unguarded moral prin- 
ciples. 

Moderate in our expectations, and tenrperate in our habits, we 
live on a small income. 

(3.) 

We can. and rrmst. reforms. 

Vice, and folly, marked his whole course. 

17. When the words, having a joint reference, are the 
subject of a personal verb, a comma is to be inserted 
before the verb. 

EXAMPLE. 

Wbafeever advanced age, long experience, great ability, accumu- 
lated public honor-, a spotless private character, and firm re- 
ligious iVirh. could do, to render any one an object of interest, 
respect, and admi radon, they had done. 

IS. When the words having a joint reference, are 
joiriotl in pairs, they -ue separated in pairs by a comma.. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

EXAMPLES. 

The contrast of good and evil, kindness and enmity, truth and 
falsehood, is quite manifest. 

Summer and winter, seed-time and harvest, growth and decay, 
succeed each other in regular order. 

Joy and sorrow, love and hate, benevolence and sordidness, seem, 
often, to be strangely commingled. 

The beautiful and deformed, the pure and corrupt, ecstacies and 
agonies, life and death, are strangely blended in this our rest- 
less planet. 

19. The omission of the conjunction and, requires the 
insertion of a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

The strong, proud sea, heaves in the storm. 
The sky was of a murky, leaden hue. 

20. The omission of a personal verb, between the parts 
of a proposition, should, usually, be marked by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Yours, the blind hope of the infatuated. 

Our good wishes are many ; our contributions, few, 

21. A conjunction, introducing an example, or sepa- 
rated from the latter clause of connection, should be iol- . 
lowed by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Most nouns form their plurals by annexing *, or es t to the singular; 

a3, friend, friends ; fox, foxes. 
He is very kind, and, with few exceptions, always has been. 
We must work, and, when we can work no longer, be cast off a9 

useless lumber. 

22. Words emphatically repeated, should be separated 
by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

It is very, very unpleasant. 
Verily, verily, I say unto you. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 237 

23. Two or more propositions, each having a joint re- 
ference to the same substantive, must each be followed 
by a comma. 

EXAMPLES. 

Analysis and synthesis are nearly akin to, if not identical with, the 

ideas ol involution and evolution. 
They ask for, and rely upon, our assistance. 
These sacrifices were offered as. an acknowledgment of, and an 

atonement for, general sinfulness of life. 



II. SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon separates parts of a compound sentence, 
that have not so close a dependence but that they micrht 
be constructed into a period. 

RULES. 

( 1. When several primary propositions, each of which 
is complete m itself, whether entire or fragmentary, are 
constructed into a period, they are, usually, separated 
irom each other by a semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

Health and sickness lie down in the same apartment; joy and 
griel look out at the same window ; and hope and despair dwell 
under the same roof. r 

The cry of the infant and the groan of the dying, rise together 
irom the same dwelling; the funeral procession treads clSse on 
the heels of the bridal party; and the tones of the lute and 
vioi, have scarcely died away before the requiem for the dead 
comes swelling after. 

It were to mantle the earth in more than Egyptian darkness ; it 
were to dry up the fountains of human happiness; it were to 
take the tides from our waters, and leave them stagnant ; and the 
stars from our heavens, and leave them in sackcloth ; and the ver- 
dure from our valleys, and leave them in barrenness ; it were to 
make the present all recklessness, and the future all hopeless- 
ness — the maniac's revelry, and the fiend's imprisonment— if 
you could annihilate that precious volume which tells us of God 
and ot Christ. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whenever you speak, remember every cause 

Stands not on eloquence, but stands on laws; 

Pregnant in matter, in expression brief. 

Let every sentence stand with bold relief ; 

On trifling points, nor time, nor talents waste, 

A sad offence to learning and to taste ; 

Nor deal with pompous phrase; nor e^er suppose, 

Poetic flights belong to reasoning prose. 
There is Nazareth, with its busy population,— the same Nazareth, 

from which marched his army ; and there is Jordan, 

along whose banks charged the glittering squadron of Murat s cav- 
alry ; and there is mount Tabor.— the same, on which Bonaparte 
stood with his cannon; and the same beautiful plain '-where 
rolled the smoke of battle, and struggled thirty thousand men 
in mortal combat. « , . 

Adams and Jefferson have lived, not for themselves, but tor t&ei. 

country ; not for their country alone, but for the worJ - d - 
Socrates, in receiving the cup of poison, blessed, indeed, the weep- 
in- executioner who administered it; but Jksus, in the midst 
ofexcrutiating torments, prayed for his merciless tormentors. 

2. Several* hypothetical, or correlative propositions of 
any kind, referring to a common responsive, are, usually, 
separated by a semicolon. 



EXAMPLES. 

As the branches of a tree return their sap to the roots, from which 
it arose ; as a river pours its waters to the sea, from which its 
springs are supplied ; so the heart of a grateful man delights m 
returning a benefit received. 
When we have looked on the pleasures of life, and they have 
vanished away ; when we have looked on the works ot nature, 
and perceived that ihey were changing; on the monuments o 
art, and seen that they would not stand; on our friends, and 
they have fled while we were gazing ; on ourselves, and felt that 
we'were as fleeting as they; we can look to the throne of God 
While other nations have risen, and reigned, and fallen; while the 
ties which united them have been sundered, and their fragments 
lost amid earth's teeming population ; the stock ol Abraham en- 
dures, like an uncorruptible monument of gold,undestroyed bv 
the attrition of the waves of time. 

3. Several phrases, followed by a comprehensive tern: 
embracing the whole, are usually separated from eaci 
other by a semicolon. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 239 

EXAMPLES. 

This restlessness of the human mind, when dealing with mere 
phenomena; this conception ? that there must be causes and 
laws; this firm conviction, that science is gained, when the 
causes and laws are determined ; and this quick satisfaction in 
the result ; all show the working of the philosophic idea. 

To acquire a thorough knowledge of our own hearts; to restrain 
every irregular inclination ; to subdue every rebellious passion ; 
to purity the motives of our conduct ; to form ourselves to that 
temperance which no pleasure can seduce ; to that meeknees 
which no provocation can ruffle; to that patience which no af- 
fliction can overwhelm; and to that integrity which no interest 
can shake ; this is the task which is assigned to us, — a task 
which can not be performed without the utmost diligence and 
care. 

4. A semicolon is usually placed after a comprehensive 
plural, followed by several explanatory terms, enumer- 
ating particulars. 

EXAMPLE. 

Substantives have four cases ; nominative, possessive, objective, and 
absolute. 

III. COLON. 

The colon is to separate those parts of a compound 
sentence, that are so far removed from each other as to 
readily admit the period. 

RULES. 

1. When the sense is complete in itself, but is followed 
by an explanatory clause, the colon or semicolon may be 
used. 

EXAMPLES. 

Beware of usurpation : God is the Judge of all. 

The lips of truth shall be established forever : but a lying tongue 
is but for a moment. 

A prudent man concealeth knowledge : but the heart of fools pro- 
claimed foolishness. 

Heaviness in the heart of man maketh it stoop : but a good word 
maketh it glad. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. When a sentence contains several propositions, or 
members, separated by a semicolon, the colon is usually 
used before the last one is introduced. 

EXAMPLE. 

When the gay and smiling aspect of things has begun to leave the 
passages to a man's heart thus thoughtlessly unguarded ; when 
kind and caressing looks of every object without, that can flatter 
his senses, have conspired with the enemy within, to betray him 
and put him off his defense ; when music likewise hath lent her 
aid, and tried her power upon his passions; when the voice of 
singing men, and the voice of singing women, with the sound 
of the viol and the lute, have broken in upon his soul, and, in 
some tender notes, have touched the secret springs of rapture : 
that moment let us direct our look into his heart, and see how 
vain, how weak, how empty a thing it is ! 

3. Quotations, when added by way of example or illus- 
tration, may be preceded by a colon or semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

He died praying for his persecutors: "Father, forgive them, for 
they know not what they do." 

Such are our Saviour's instructions: "Love your enemies; bless 
them that curse you ; do good to them that hate you; and pray 
for them that despitefully use you, and persecute you." 

Remember the ancient maxim : '• Know thyself." 

Remark. — Instead of the semicolon, or colon, the comma may be 
used, followed by a dash ; or, perhaps, the semicolon may be used, 
followed by a dash, instead of the colon. 

EXAMPLES. 

The firmest works of man, too, are, gradually, giving way, — the 
ivy clings to the mouldering tower, — the brier hangs out from 
the shattered window, — and the wall-flower springs from the 
disjointed stones. 

A stone, perhaps, may tell some wanderer where we lie, — when 
we came here, — when we went away : but even that will, soon, 
refuse to bear us record. 



IV. PERIOD. 

The period denotes either a completion of the whole 
subject, or a completion of grammatical construction. 



SYNTACTICAL PUNCTUATION. 241 

RULES. 

1. A period must be placed at the close of every sen- 
tence. 

EXAMPLES. 

Write three or four sentences. 

Give the first rule for the use of the period. 

A good education is that which prepares us for our future sphere 

of action. 
No scholar can be said to have accomplished any thing valuable 

for himself, till he thoroughly understands what he studies, and 

perceives the application. 

2. The period must follow all abbreviations. 

EXAMPLES. 

A. D. 1843. 

Mr. J. C. Spencer is one of the most accurate business men in this 

country. - 
Alfred, Allegany Co., N. Y. 
Charles Anthon, L.L.D., Prof, of Languages in Columbia College, 

N. Y. 

V. DASH. 

The dash is used to denote some sudden transition of 
thought, to set off some parenthetic clause, or in indicat- 
ing a considerable pause, longer than those usually used 
would imply. It is, also, used to indicate an ellipsis of 
some word, or part of a sentence, or the omission of most 
of the letters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing bat sordid dust lies here. 

(2.) 

The soldiers perished in a moment ; but high up in the cliffs, above 

the sweep of destruction, were the Covenanters, — men, women, 

and children, — uttering praises to God. 
The hand that played this invisible piano,-— if it was a piano,— 

had a firm, bold touch, with an admirable mixture of judgment 

and passion. 

21 



242 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(3.) 



Then he which (-.who) had received the one talent came, and said, 
Lord, I knew that thou art a hard man, reaping where thou hast 
not sown, and gathering where thou hast not strewed : — And I 
was afraid, and went and hid thy talent in the earth: lo, there 
thou hast that is thine. — His lord answered and said unto him, 
Thou wicked and slothful servant, — thou knewest that I reap 
where I sowed not, and gather where I have not strewed: — Thtm 
©lightest therefore to have put my money to the exchangers, and 
at my coming, I should have received mine own with usury. 
Take, therefore, the talent from him, and give it to him which 
(who) hath ten talents. — And cast ye the unprofitable servant into 
outer darkness: there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth, 

(4.) 

-Piety has found 



Friends in the friends of science ; and true prayer 
Has flowed from lips wet with Castalian dews 

(5.) 
His name is J h. 



VI. STARS. 



Instead of the dash, a number of stars is sometimes 
used to denote that a considerable amount of the compo^ 
sition has been omitted. 



VII. SECTION. 

The section is used to denote the divisions of a chap- 
ter or book. 

VIII. PARAGRAPH. 



The paragraph is used, chiefly in the Bible, to denote 
the beginning of a new subject. 



ELOCUTION ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 343 



§94. ELOCUTION. 

Definition 1. — By elocution is meant the pronuncia- 
tion of words separately or collectively. 

Specification 1. — Hence it embraces both orthoepy 
and rhetorical delivery. 

Definition 2. — Orthoepy is the pronunciation of words 
in accordance with established usage. 

Definition 3. — Rhetorical delivery is the art of speak- 
ing with propriety, elegance, and force. 

Remark. — It is intended to give- a few general items only, on the 
subject of elocution, which shall serve merely to review the scholar 
in this important branch of a good education. The principles of elo- 
cution must be gathered, first, from our elementary reading books, 
and, secondly, by studying, very attentively, works that treat that 
subject exclusively. 

Specification 2. — Correct orthoepy requires a knowl- 
edge of all the elementary sounds used in the formation 
of words, and their combinations, the seat of the accent, 
and the quantity of syllables. 



§95. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

Definition. — An elementary sound is a simple sound, 
not made up of component parts. 

Specification. — There are, in the English lansfuao-e, 
thirty-seven elementary sounds, all embraced in two gene- 
ral classes, vowels and consonants. 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"Remark 1. — These sounds are represented by characters, called 
letters; but the teacher should cause the scholar carefully to dis- 
tinguish between the sound and its visible representative. Good 
sense would dictate, that there should be as many letters as there are 
elementary sounds; but in this there is a great deficiency. A single 
letter is sometimes used to represent several distinct sounds; and in 
other instances, two or even three letters are used to represent a 
single sound. This renders the orthography of the language ex- 
tremely difficult to learn. It is to be hoped, that the day is not far 
distant when the labors of those who are turning their attention to 
effect a revolution in our method of spelling, will be crowned with 
success. The author is not unapprised of the magnitude of their 
undertaking, yet the ultimate triumph of the revolution proposed — 
a perfect orthography — is beyond controversy. The progress will 
be slow, but so much the more sure. Reformers must learn to be 
content to see "great bodies move slow." 

Remark 2, The scholar must not confound orthography with 
orthoepy. The one pertains to writing the language, the other to 
its pronunciation. 



§96. VOWELS. 

Definition 1. — A vowel is a vocal sound, formed by 
the organs of sound, uninterrupted by the organs of ar- 
ticulation. 

Remark. — The organs of sound are those organs by the exercise 
of which all the sounds of the human voice are produced. They 
are, the lungs, trachea, larynx, glottis, and epiglottis. The organs 
of articulation are those organs by the partial or entire contact of 
which, during the emission of breath, the sounds of the human voice 
are variously modified. They are, the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. 
The sound is also modified by the emission of breath through the 
nostrils. 

Specification. — Vowels are of two kinds : simple and 
compound. 

Definition 2. — A simple vowel is a vocality, formed 
without changing the position of the organs of articula- 
tion, during the emission of breath. 






VOWELS. 



245 



Definition 3. — A compound vowel is a vocality, 
formed by changing the position of the organs of articu- 
lation, during the emission of breath. 

Distinction. — Contrast the sound of a hi fame or e in mete, with the 
sound of i in pine or rise, and the distinction between the simple 
and compound vowels will be manifest. 

Specification. — Tbere are fourteen simple vowels, all 
represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. They are 
classed below in pairs of cognates. 

Definition 4. — -Cognate vowels are those formed with- 
out changing the position of the organs of articulation. 



A long as in 
"- short 


name 
met, 


A grave " 
short " " 


far, 
hat, 


A broad " 
short " " 


hall, 
what, 


A slender " 

short " " 


last, 
liar, 



^ E long 
\ " short 
( O long 
\ M short 
$ O slender 
} short " 



mete, 

pit, 

note, 

love, 

move. 

wolf. 



COMPOUND VOWELS. 

Remark 1. — These are all made up of a unitation of two or more 
simple vowels. They are represented by one, two, or three letters. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 

/, as in time, is made up of grave a and e long. 
U, as in usual, is made up of e long and o slender. 
O is a compound vowel in one and its compounds, and is then 
made up of o slender -and u short. 



(2-) 

Ou, as in one, is made up of a slender and o slender. 
Oy, as in boy, is made up of a broad and e long. 
Wi, as in wit, is made up of o slender and i short. 
Yo, as in yoke, is made up of e long and o long. 



245 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(3) 



Wi, as in wife, is made up of o slender, a grave, and e long". 
Won, as in wound, is made up of o slender, a slender, and o slender*. 
Uoy, as iu buoy, is ma.de up of o slender, a broad, and e long; 

R f.mark 2. — The sound of u in mute, differs from the sound of ti 
m useful, in the less prominency given, to llie iirst part of the sound- 
in the former word. 

Remark 3? — W, preceding a, e, i, o, or u, is a vowel; and has tfrV 
sound of o slender. Strange that it should be classed among conso- 
nants ! The most respectable authority might be adduced in favor 
of its present classification ; but, authority aside, let us test it. Pro- 
nounce the word too, and, retaining the organs in the last position 
assumed in pronouncing that word, give the first sound In pronounc- 
ing the word wacl*. Try the same experiment on other examples; 
thus, comparing the sound of slender o, with that of initial w. The 
conclusion is inevitable ; . if the first sound is a vowel, the second is ; 
if the second is a consonant, the first is. In pronouncing the words 
youlh, year, &c. f it will be perceived that the orgaus are placed in a 
position to sound e long, and the sound is simply protracted, during 
the shifting of the organs to sound the succeeding vowel. I, followed 
by a vowel in the same syllable, has the same sound; as;, familiar, 
filial, alien. 

Remark 4. — The student will have no difficulty in determining 
what a compound vowel is made up of, if he will carefully notice 
the exact position of the orgaus at the commencement and close of 
the sound. The sound is necessarily protracted, during the shifting 
of the organs from the first to the last assumed position. 

Remark 5. — Compound vowels are either dipihongs or tripthongs; 
that is, either the union of two or three vowels. 



§9 7. COTS GNA NTS. 

Definition. — A consonant is either a mere breathing, 
©r a sound intercepted by the organs of articulation. 

Specification. — Of these there are twenty-three in 
number. We will first give the letter or letters ordina- 
rily used to represent 
laining the sound. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS. 247 

The following couplets are cognates of each other: 



SP as ii 

B « 
5 T 

} D " 

f v « 



pit, 

bend, 

time, 

deep, 

fade, 

vain, 

kind, 
gone, 



Ch as in change, 


J 


join, 


S 


sun, 


z 


zone, 


Sh 


shall, 


Zh 


azure, 


Th 


think, 


Th '* 


that. 



The sounds represented by the following letters, have no corres- 
ponding cognates : 



L 


as in 


land, 


Nff as in 


thing, 


M 


a 


make, 


H " 


hand, 


N 


a 


no, 


Wh « 


where. 


R 


it 


road, 







Remark 1. — In the list, c, q. and x, do not appear, because the 
sounds they represent are accurately represented by other letters — 
c by k and s ; q by k ; and x by z, ks, and gz. 

Remark 2. — The letter r is used to represent only one sound, be- 
cause it does nothing more. Some are disposed to trill the r; but 
though the trilling sounds very well, when done by a skillful speaker, 
yet the number who so manage it, are too few to give authority to 
the practice. 



§ 98. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS. 



Remark. — The consonants are divided into several 
classes, each mode of classification depending upon some 
circumstance of their formation. 

1. The first is founded upon the entire or partial inter- 
ception of the breath, while the organs are articulated, 
or upon the fact that the breath is uninterrupted. 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Specification. — -This distinction divides them into 
three classes : close, open, and unarticulated aspirates. 

(1.) A close consonant is an articulation that entirely 
intercepts the breath. They are represented, by p and b, 
t and d, k and g. 

(2.) An open consonant is an articulation that only 
partially intercepts the breath. They are represented 
by f and v, ch and j, s and z, sh and zh, th and th,\ m, 
n, r, and ng. 

(3.) The unarticulated aspirates are mere breathings, 
not intercepted by the organs of articulation. They are 
represented by h and wh. 

2. The second classification is founded upon the organs 
used in articulation. 

Specification. — This distinction naturally gives rise 
to four divisions : labials, labio-dentals, lingua-dentals, 
and lingua-gutturals. 

(1.) Labials are articulations of the lips. They are 
represented by p and b, and m. 

(2.) Labio-dentals are articulations of the lips, gently 
pressed by the upper teeth. They are represented by 
f and v. 

(3.) Lingua-dentals are articulations of the tongue, 
pressed against the teeth or gums. They are represented 
by t and d, ch and j, s and z, sh and zh, th and th % 
1, n, and r, 

(4.) Lingua-gutturals are articulations of the tongue, 
rolled back against the throat or back part of the palate. 
They are represented by k and g, and ng. 

Remark. — Nasals are articulations that entirely in- 
tercept the breath through the lips, and emit it through 
the nostrils. They are represented by the labial m, the 
lingua-dental n, and the lingua- guttural ng. 



POSITION OP ORGANS IN ARTICULATING CONSONANTS. 249 

Remark. — Sibilants are formed by the emission of 
breath through the teeth, in such a manner as to produce 
a hissing sound. They are represented by the lingua- 
dentals s and z. 

3. The third classification is founded upon the distinc- 
tion of the sound produced, being vocal, or only a 
breathing. 

Specification. — Hence they will be embraced in two 
divisions: sub-vocals and aspirates. 

(1.) A sub-vocal is a vocal sound, suppressed by the 
organs of articulation. 

(2.) An aspirate is a whispering sound, without a vo- 
cality. 

Aspirates ) C p, t, f, k, ch, s, sh, th,( h, wh. 

and > are expressed by < cognates < 

Sub-vocals S ( b, d, v, g, j, z, zh, tk, ( 1, m, n, r, ng. 

Remark. — The sounds represented by 1, m, n, r, and s, 
are denominated liquids, when they readily unite with 
other sounds ; as blank, elb, place, alps, damp, and, 
frank, fast, stray. 



§ 89. POSITION OF THE ORGANS. ASSUMED IN THE 
ARTICULATION OF THE CONSONANTS. 



Remark. — The following directions may be serviceable to those 
who have not attentively studied the subject of phonology in its re- 
lation to phonography and orthoepy, in enabling them to form the 
consonant sounds. 



COGNATES. 



P and B. — The sound represented by p, is formed by 
articulating the lips, either at the beginning or closing of 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

a vowel sound. Hold the organs on p, in pain, stop* &c. 
The sound represented by b, is formed the same as the 
sound represented by p, with the addition of a sub-vocal 
sound, while the organs are articulated. Hold the organs 
on b, in branch, slab. 

T and D. — The sound represented by t, is formed by 
articulating the tongue against the gum of the upper 
teeth, either at the beginning or closing of a vowel 
sound. Hold the organs on t, in time, hit. The sound 
represented by d, is formed the same as the sound of t, 
with the addition of a sub-vocal sound, while the or- 
gans are articulated. Hold the organs on d, in do, and, 
would. 

F and "P.- — The sound represented by f, is formed by 
articulating the upper front teeth with the under lip, and 
gently emitting the breath. Hold the organs on f, in 
fame, half. The sound represented by v, is formed the 
same as the sound of f, with the addition of a sub-vocal 
sound, while the organs are articulated. Hold the organs 
on v, in vain, have. 

K and G. — The sound represented by k, is formed by 
closely articulating the middle part of the tongue with 
the upper and back part of the palate, either at the be- 
ginning or closing of a vowel sound. Hold the organs 
on k, in kind, walk. The sound represented by g, is 
formed the same as the sound of k, with the addition of 
a sub-vocal sound, while the organs are articulated. Hold 
the organs on g, in go, log. 

CH and J. — The sound represented by the digraph 
ch, is formed by articulating the tongue with the gum of 
the upper teeth, and emitting the breath by dropping the 
end of the tongue a very little. Hold the organs on ch, 
in child, rich. The sound represented by j, is formed 
the same as the sound of ch, with the addition of a sub- 
vocal sound, while the organs are articulated. Hold the, 
organs on j, in join, major. 



• 

POSITION OF ORGANS IN ARTICULATING CONSONANTS. 251 

S and Z. — The first sound represented by s, is formed 
by articulating the tongue with the gum of the upper 
teeth, and emitting the breath through a very narrow 
opening formed by dropping the tip of the tongue. Hold 
the organs on s, in sun, bliss. The first sound repre- 
sented by z, is formed the same as the sound of s, with 
the addition of a sub-vocal sound, while the organs are 
articulated. Hold the organs on z, in zink, Zion. 

Siifand ZH. — The sound represented by the digraph 
sh, is formed by articulating the sides of the tongue 
against the upper teeth, and dropping the end of the 
tongue nearly to the gum of the lower teeth, and emit- 
ting the breath through a large aperture thus formed. 
Hold the organs on sh, in shall, wash. The second 
sound represented by z, is formed the same as sh, with 
the addition of a sub- vocal sound, while the organs are 
articulated. Hold the organs on z, in azure. 

TH and TH. — The first sound represented by the di- 
graph th, is formed by articulating the end of the tongue 
against the ends of the upper front teeth, and emitting 
the breath at the sides. Hold the organs on th, in think, 
path. The second sound represented by the same di- 
graph, is formed the same as the first, with the addition 
of a sub-vocal sound, while the organs are articulated. 
Hold the organs on th, in this, smooth. 



LETTERS WHICH HAVE NO CORRESPOND- 
ING COGNATES. 

L. — The sound represented by 1, is formed by articu- 
lating the end of the tongue against the gum of the up- 
per teeth, and emitting the breath at the sides of the 
tongue, with the addition of a sub-vocal sound, while the 
organs are articulated. Hold the organs on 1, in lame, 
shall. 

M. — The sound represented by m, is formed by articu- 
lating the lips, and emitting the breath through the nos- 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

trils, with the addition of a sub-vocal sound, while the 
organs are articulated. Hold the organs on m, in man, 
calm. 

JV". — The sound represented by n, is formed by snugly 
articulating the tongue with the gum of the upper teeth, 
and emitting the breath at the nostrils, with the addition 
of a sub-vocal sound, while the organs are articulated. 
Hold the organs on n, in no, on. 

R. — The sound represented by r, is formed by articu- 
lating the sides of the middle part of the tongue with 
the upper back teeth, and then rolling down the end, 
and emitting the breath through the opening thus 
formed, with the addition of a sub-vocal sound, while 
the organs are articulated. Hold the organs on r, in 
road, for. 

NG. — The sound represented by this digraph, is formed 
by loosely articulating the middle part of the tongue with 
the back part of the palate, and emitting the breath 
through the nostrils, with the addition of a sub-vocal 
sound, while the organs are articulated. Hold the organs 
on ng, in thing. 

H. — The sound represented by h, is formed by merely 
emitting the breath, without an articulation or vocal 
sound. Hold the organs on h, in hand. 

WH. — The sound represented by the digraph wh, is 
formed by placing the lips in a position to sound slender 
o, and emitting the breath, without a vocal sound. Hold 
the organs on wh, in which, when. 



Remark. — The various peculiarities of orthography, such as silent 
letters, the number of sounds represented by certain letters, &c, &c, 
have not been contemplated in this mere outline of the fundamental 
principles of orthography. It is an outline examination, or ortho- 
graphy iu its relations to orthoepy ; nothing more. 



ANALYZING ORTHOGRAPII. 253 



§100. ANALYZING ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Remark — Let the scholar proceed very slowly through the pre- 
ceding exercises, practicing on the consonants under each particular 
division of each classification. Then let him be practiced in spelling 
phonographically, and also in analyzing orthographically. The fol- 
lowing is the order of analyzing : 

I. Consonants : 

( close, p and b, t and d, k and g; \_th, I,ra,n,r,ng r ; 
1st Classification,^ open, f and v, ch and j, s and z, sh and zh, th and 
(^unarticulated aspirates, h, wh. 

f labials, p, b, ra ; 
2d Classification. I ^io^entds f and v ; [zh, th and th, 1 n, r ; 

' 1 lingua-dentals, t ana a, ch and J, s and z, sh and 

Vtingua-gutturals, k and g, ng. 

f aspirates, p, t, f, k, ch, s, sh, th,^ h, w r h; 
3d Classification, \ cognates, } 

^sub-vocals, b, d, v, g, j, z, zh, th, J 1, m, n, r, ng. 

4th. Give the sound unaccompanied by the sound of any other letter. 



f along, a grave, abroad, a slender, e long, o long, o slender; 
II. Vowels, < cognates, or corresponding short vowels, 

(,e in met, a in hat,aiuwhat,ainliar,iinpit,oinlove,oinwolf. 

EXAMPLES. 
1. BRANCH. 

B represents a close labial articulation, sub-vocal, cognate of p, 
sound — (give it.) 

R represents an open lingua-dental articulation, sub-vocal, no cog- 
nate, sound — (give it.) 

A represents the short sound of a grave, sound — (give it.) 

N represents an open lingua-dental articulation, nasal, sub-vocal, 
no cognate, sound — (give it.) 

CH represents an open lingua-dental articulation, aspirate, cognate 
of j, sound — (give it.) 

2. TOILSOME. 

T represents a close lingua dental articulation, aspirate, coguate 
of d, sound — (give it.) .' 

^22 



254 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OI represents a compound vowel, made up of a broad, and e long 
and obscure, sound — (give it.) 

L represents an open lingua-dental articulation, sub-vocal, no cog- 
nate, sound— (give it.) 

S represents an open lingua-dental articulation, sibilant, aspirate, 
coguute of z, sound — (give it.) 

O represents the sound of o long, sound — (give it.) 

M represents a close labial articulation, nasal, sub-vocal, no cog- 
nate, sound — (give it.) 



§101. ACCENT. 

Definition. — Accent consists in distinguishing one or 
more syllables of a word, by a more forcible stress of 
voice than is placed upon others. The accented syllable 
may be distinguished to the eye by the symbol called the 
acute accent [']. 

EXAMPLES. 

kingdom, lover, toilsome, nation, 

hateful, bottle, awTul, ration. 

Remark 1. — When a word has two accents, one is more forcible 
than the other; the first is called the primary accent, the latter the 
secondary. The secondary accent may be marked by doubling the 
acute accent. 

EXAMPLES. 

devastation, memorable, fundamental, incomprehensibility. 

Remark 2. — The meaning of words is, in a few instances, de- 
termined by the seat of the accent. 

EXAMPLES, 
desert, desert'; conduct, conduct'. 



QUANTITY RHETORICAL DELIVERY. 255 

Remark 3. — Since we soon learn the correct pronunciation of 
words, it is not necessary to use symbols of accent much beyond the 
primary reading lessons; hence we seldom meet with the use of the 
symbol in works other than elementary reading. 



§102. QUANTITY. 

Definition. — The quantity of syllables is the relative 
time used in pronouncing them. 

Specification. — They are either long or short; and a 
syllable of long quantity requires double the time of one 
of short quantity. 

Remark 1. — The quantity of a syllable depends on its yowel, 
whether it is long or short. 

Remark 2. — The long or open vowel is marked with a macron; 
and the short or close vowel with a breve, 

EXAMPLES. 

reason, wave, painful, prime, 

pin, stop, tub, not, 

conclave, reconcile, confine, perfume. 



§103. RHETORICAL DELIVERY. 



Remark 1. — While orthoepy pertains to the pronunciation of sepa- 
rate words, rhetorical delivery pertains to the pronunciation of words 
in their syntactical relation, as forming discourse. 

Remark 2. — Rhetorical delivery requires a complete knowledge 
of orthoepy, the various modifications of the voice, such as pitch, 
inflections, compass, rotundity, fullness, emphasis, &c, and pauses. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Specification. — The absolute modifications . of the 
voice are, the monotone, the rising inflection, falling in- 
flection, rising circumflex, falling circumflex, and em- 
phasis. 

Definition 1. — The monotone is a uniformity of sound 
on successive syllables. It may be marked by the ma- 
cron [ — ]. 

EXAMPLES. 

Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord of hosts ; 
The whole earth is full of his glory. 



-All heaven 



Resounded; and had earth been there, all earth 
Had to her centre shook. 

Remark. — The monotone, in reading or speaking, is sometimes ad- 
missible in pronouncing composition of a very solemn, grave, or 
sublime character. 

Definition 2. — The rising inflection is an upward 
turn of the voice. It may be marked by the acute ac- 
cent ['J. 

EXAMPLES. 

The beauty of a plain, the greatness of a mountain, the orna- 
ments of a building, the expression of a picture, the composi- 
tion of a discourse, the conduct of a third person, the propor- 
tion of different quantities and numbers, the various operations 
which the great machine of the universe is perpetually exhibit- 
ing, the secret wheels and springs which produce them, all 
the general subjects of science and taste, have, for some per- 
sons, no peculiar interest. 

If reason teaches the learned, necessity the barbarian, common 
custom all nations in general ; and, if even nature itself instructs 
the brutes to defend their bodies and lives when attacked, by 
all possible methods ; you can not pronounce this action criminal. 

Definition 3. — The falling inflection is a downward 
turn of the voice. It may be marked by the grave ac- 
cent [ v ]. 



RHETORICAL DELIVERY. 257 



EXAMPLES. 



Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise. 

How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard ! — when wilt thou arise out 
of thy sleep ? 

Home, home, ye idle creatures, get ye home. 

You blocks, you stones! you worse than senseless things. 

Charity suifereth long and is kiud; charity envieth not; charity 
vauiiteth not itself; is not puffed up; doth not behave itself un- 
seemly ; seeketh not her (its) own; is not easily provoked f 
thinketh no evil. 

Definition 4. — The rising circumflex is a unitation 
of the falling and rising inflections. It may be marked 
by the breve [ w ], or the unitation of the grave and acute 
accents ["]. 

EXAMPLES. 

We are accounted poor citizens; the patricians good. 

Hume said he would go twenty miles to hear Whitefield preach. 

Definition 5. — The falling circumflex is a unitation 
of the rising and falling inflections. It may be marked 
by a unitation of the acute and grave accents ["]. 

EXAMPLES. 

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious ; 
And sure, he is an honorable man; 
He is wondrous condescending. 

Remark 1. — The rules for the particular application of inflections 
must be learned from elementary reading books, and works on elo- 
cution. 

Note. — The symbols, marking the inflections, are little used except in element- 
ary works. " " 

Definition 6. — Emphasis is a forcible stress of voice 
laid upon some word or words in a sentence, distinguish- 
ing them from others. 

Specification. — All the varieties of emphasis may be 
embraced under three classes : absolute, antithetical, and 
syntactical emphasis. 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 






Definition 1.—- Absolute emphasis is distinguishing 
one or more words in a sentence, in consequent of their 
special significancy. 

EXAMPl 

True politeness is based on sincerity ; it flows from the heart; and 
is equally fascinating in the cottage, the court, and the camp. 

— Victory ! 

Charge, Chester, charge! on, Stanley, on! 
Such was thy wisdom, Newton, child-like sage i 

Definition 2. — Antihthetical emphasis is distinguishing 
words that are in contrast. 



EXAMPLES. 

We think less of the injuries we do, than of those we suffer. 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 

But in ourselves, that we are underlings. 
They tell us to be moderate ; but they, they are to revel ia pro- 
fusion. 
He is more knave \hm\fool. 

His joy supreme, 

To bid the wretch survive the fortunate, 

The fiehle wrap the athletic in his shroud, 

And weeping fathers build their children s tomb — 

Me, thine, Narcissa ! 
Virtue, not rolling suns, the mind matures. 

Remark. — Sometimes two or more words are used in antithesis 
with another. 

EXAMPLE. 

I came not to baptize, but to preach the gospel. 

Definition 3. — Syntactical emphasis is distinguishing 
syntactical relations. 

Remark. — This emphasis is frequently required when an ellipsis 
has been employed, or some parenthetic clause has interrupted the 
close connection of words with each other, or where some other- 
wise quite unimportant word is to give the meaning to a phrase or 

©etiteuce. 



PAUSES. ^ OJ 



EXAMPLES. 

(10 



How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful. 

Man may dismiss compassion from bis heart, 

13 at God will never. ■ 

Mortals, whose pleasures are their only care, 
First wish to be imposed on, and then are. — 

(2.) 

Mr. Taylor,— the Daybook says,— is to be elected to the pss- 
sidency. 

(3.) 

Paul had determined to sail by Ephesns. 

They are very much -in-te rested- in this movement, but, — ah ! that's 
the pinch ! 

Remark. — The relative modifications of the voice, called also its 
modulations, such as pitch, compass, &c, will not receive attention 
in, this work. 



§10 4. PAUSES. 

Specification. — Pauses, in reading or speaking", are 
syntactical, or rhetorical. 

Definition 1. — Syntactical pauses are designed to 
show the relation which different words in construction 
sustain to each other. 

Remark. — The syntactical points or symbols have been enumerated,. 
(J 93.) and rules given for their use. Pauses are usually to be made 
in reading or speaking where these points occur; but this is not a 
uniform rule, as may be observed in the words yes, sir, or no. sir. 
Syntactically, they must be separated by a comma ; but, in speaking 
them, no pause is admissible. So, also, the length of the pause is 
to vary with the kind of composition, to be read. The grave, the 
solemn, the deliberate kinds of composition require much longer 
pauses than lighter and less important reading. To read the former 
in the same familiar, r ipid style, admissible or required in reading 
the latter, would be superlatively ridiculous and vice versa. 



26® ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Definition 2. — Rhetorical pauses are such as occur 
in reading and speaking, either when a longer pause is 
required than demanded by the syntactical construction, 
or when no syntactical pause is admissible. 

Remark. — The rhetorical pause is chiefly used to fix the attention 
on some particular word, which is the subject of a personal verb, 
or which is especially emphatic. This pause most frequently occurs 
after some important word or phrase, though it may precede. 

EXAMPLES. 

Prosperity gains friends ; adversity tries them. 

Add to your faith virtue; and to virtue — knowledge; and to 
knowledge — temperance ; and to temperance patience. 
Some place the bliss in action, some in ease; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. 
The worst of slaves is he whom passion rules. 



§105. RHETORICAL SYMBOLS. 

Specification. — These are the interrogation [?] and 
exclamation [!] points. The dash is a rhetorical symbol, 
when used to indicate a longer pause than the other 
points would require. The parenthesis is also rhetorical, 
since it includes a clause that must be read in a weakei 
tone of voice than the rest of the sentence. 

Remark. — Before giving rules for the use of these points, it will 
be well briefly to glance at a classification of interrogative proposi- 
tions. 



§106. INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 

Specification. — These are of three kinds : definite, 
indefinite, and indirect. 

Definition 1. — The definite interrogatives commence 
with a verb, and admit the answer yes, or no. 



INTERROGATIVE PROPOSITIONS. 261 

EXAMPLES. 

Are we intended for actors in the great drama of eternity? 

Hath God forgotten to be gracious? 

Is not this the carpenter's son ? 

Have those expectations been realized? 

Shall I become more particular still ? 

Did they become insensible to resentment and indignation ? 

Definition 2. — The indefinite interrogatives commence 
with an interrogative adverb, or pronoun, and do not ad- 
mit the answer yes, or no. 

examples. 

When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of 

mankind ? 
Who was mentioned ? 
Whom did he call ? 
Where shall I go ? 
Where is the crew? 
How vain are all our hopes ? 
How then must I determine ? 
Where am I? 

What sort of a place do I inhabit ? 
For whom do you toil ? 

Definition 3. — The indirect interrogatives are declar- 
ative in form, and may or may not be answered by yes, 
or no. 

EXAMPLES. 

They were present ? 

He did not deny it? 

Our plans not successful ? 

You object? 

Impossible for him to accompany us ? 

Pardon my faults ? 

Surely, you can not be ignorant of the results ? 

You are certainly to blame ? 

COMPOUND INTERROGATIVES. 

Specification. — These are of two kinds : pure and 
mixed. 

Definition 1. — The compound interrogative is purely 
such, when all its primary propositions are interrogative. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 



Are the miseries of man, and is the fatal necessity of death, in con- 
templation ? 

Has he not himself, have not all the martyrs after him, poured forth 
their blood in the conflict ? 

Is this, then, a time to forget the protection of Heaven, when the 
hearts of men are failing them for fear, end for looking after 
those things which are coming on the earth? 

Are not the just, the brave, and the good, necessarily exposed to 
the disagreeable emotions of dislike and aversion, when they re- 
spectively meet with instances of fraud, of cowardice, or of vil- 
lainy ? 

Can we minister to the intellectual and spiritual wants of Syria, 
of Greece, of Burmah, of Ceylon, and of the remotest isles of 
the Pacific; have we enough and to spare for these remote na- 
tions and tribes, with whom we have no nearer kindred than 
that Adam is our common parent, and Christ our common Sav- 
iour; and shall we shut our hands on the call for the soul's food, 
which is addressed to us by these our brethren, our school- 
mates, whose fathers stood side by side with ours, in the great 
crisis of the country's fortune ? 

Has Nature, in her calm majestic march, 

Faltered with age at last; does the bright sun 
Grow dim in heaven ; or, in their fair blue arch, 
Sparkle the crowd of stars, when day is done, 
Less brightly ? 

Oan all the illusions of ambition realized, can all the wealth of 
universal commerce, can all the achievements of successful 
heroism, or all the establishments of this world's wisdom, secure 
to empire the permanency of its possessions ? 

Are you Christians; and, by upholding duelists, will you deluge 
the land with blood, and fill it with widows and orphans ? 

What eye has been permitted to see, what ear to hear, what heart 
to conceive, those things which God has in preparation for 6uch 
as love him? 

Why should we suspend our resistance, why should we submit to 
an anthority like this, if we have the right and superior force 
on our side? 

What fellowship hath righteousness with unrighteousness? and 
what communion hath light with darkness? and what concord 
hath Christ with Belial ? or what part hath he that believeth with 
an infidel ? and what agreement hath the temple of God with 
idols ? 

By whom is this profusion praised, but by wretches who consider 
him as subservient to -their purposes; syrens that entice him to 
shipwreck ; and cy clops that are gaping to devour him ? 

Definition 2. — The compound interrogative is mixed 
when some or all of its primary propositions are declara- 
tive or imperative. 



RULES FOR THE USE OF THE INTERROGATION POINT. 203 

EXAMPLES. 

I ask gentlemen, sir, what means this martial array, if its purpose 
be not to force us to submission ? 

If they have called the master of the house Beelzebub, how much 
more shall they call them of his household? 

Sir, when these sentiments shall become prevalent, what, think 
you, will become of that system? how long will it last after the 
payment of duties shall come to be considered a badge of servi- 
tude ? 

It is easy for us to maintain her doctrine, at this late day, when 
there is but one party on the subject, an immense people; but 
what tribute shall we bestow, what sacred peans hall we raise, 
over the tombs of those who dared, in the face of unrivaled 
power, and within reach of majesty, to blow the blast of free- 
dom throughout a subject continent? 

We read how many days they could support the fatigues of a 
march ; how early they rose ; how late they watched ; how 
many hours they spent in the field, in the cabinet, in the court 7 
in the study ; how many secretaries they kept employed ; in 
-short, how hard they worked ; but w^ho ever heard of its being 
said of a man, in commendation, that he could sleep fifteen hours 
out of the twenty-four ; that he could eat six meals a day ; and 
that he never got tired of his easy chair ? 
Ungrateful sinners I whence this scorn 
Of God's long-suffering grace 1 



§ 107. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE INTERROG- 
ATION POINT. 

1. Every definite and indefinite interrogative sentence 
mnst be followed by an interrogation point. 

2. Several interrogative propositions, forming a com- 
pound interrogative sentence, may each be followed by 
an interrogation point; or they may be separated by 
other points, and the interrogation placed after the last. 

EXAMPLES. 

Will the Lord cast us off forever, and will he be favorable no more ? 

Canst thou bind the unicorn with his band in the furrow ? or will 
he harrow in the valleys after thee ? Wilt thou trust him because 
his strength is great ? or wilt thou leave thy labor to him ? 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Gavest thou the goodly wings unto the peacocks ? or wings and 
feathers unto the ostrich ? 

Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook? or his tongue with a 
cord which thou lettest down? Canst thou put a hook into his 
nose? or bore his jaw through with a thorn? Wilt thou play 
with him as with a bird? or wilt thou bind him for thy maidens? 
Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons ? or his head with 
fish-spears ? 

3. The indirect interrogation mav be followed by a 
period or an interrogation point. 

EXAMPLES. 
Surely, he is in jest. All can go ? 

Remark. — Any interrogative sentence, expressive of great emotion, 
may be followed by the exclamation point. 



§108. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

Remark 1. — Any sentence, whether declarative, imperative, or 
interrogative, expressive of great emotion, is exclamatory. 

EXAMPLES. 

I am risen from my bed, to stand up in the cause of my country! 
perhaps never again to speak in this House ! 

But a month ago, would she have thought it! You, who then be- 
held her drowned in tears for her mother's loss, would you have 
thought it! Would you have thought, that you were so soon to 
meet again to bewail her own fate ! 

Tremble, ye proud, disdainful men, who listen to me ! Tremble ! 
for the abuse of favors of every kind, which God has heaped on 
you ! Think on the certainty of death ; the uncertainty of its 
hour ; how terrible it will be to you ! 

Think on final impenitence, — on the last judgment, — on the small 
number of the elect, — and, above all, think on eternity * 

Oh, my countrymen ! what will our children say, when they read 
the history of these times, should they find that we tamely gave 
away, without one noble struggle, the most invaluable of earthly 
blessings ! 

Happy, proud America ! The lightnings of heaven yield to your 
philosophy ! The temptations of earth could not seduce your 
patriotism ! 



J 



EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 2G5 

I repeat it! — Sir, we must Jightl 

I know not what course others may take; but, as for me, give me 
liberty, or give me death I 

Hark I a strange sound affrights mine ear I — 
O listen ! I will speak no more : — 
Be silent, Pride ! 
O live ! — and deeply cherish still 
The sweet remembrance of the past ! — 
*T is done ! Arise ! He bids thee stand, 
To fall no more. 
Behold the sun, just issuing from his chamber, spreading light and 
joy through all the realms of nature ! What a prospect presents 
itself to the view ! 
Bereaved mourner ! treasure this record in thy heart of hearts. 
What moments were these for humiliation before God, for solemn 
searchings of heart, and for the secret breathings of fervent 
prayer! What moments these for tender recollections, yet filial 
and firm dependence on omniscient love ! 

? T is the lightning's red glare, painting wrath on the sky ! 
'T is the crashing of thunders, the groan of the sphere ! 
He springs from his hammoc — he flies to the deck — 

Amazement confronts him with images dire — 
Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck — 
The masts fly in splinters — the shrouds are on fire ! 

Remark 2. — Substantives are frequently introduced with exclama- 
tory emphasis, and then left without dependence upon other words. 
If they are thus introduced by direct address, they are parsed as 
other substantives used in address ; but if they are of the third per- 
son, they are said to be in the absolute case by exclamation. 

EXAMPLES. 

O vanity ! O nothing I O mortals ! ever ignorant of what awaits 

you. 
Scotland ! the home of the brave ! 

Amazing change ! A shroud! a coffin! a narrow, subterraneous 
cabin! — this is all that now remains of Hamilton! 

O treacherous conscience ! while she seems to sleep 

On rose and myrtle, lulled with syren song ; 
Ah me I full sorely is my heart forlorn. 

O ruthful scene ! when, from a nook obscure, 

His little sister doth his peril see ; 

Deluded wight ! who weens fair peace can spring 

Beneath the pompous dome of heroes or of kings. 

Aye, Idleness ! the rich folks never fail 

To find some reason why the poor deserve 

Their miseries ! 

23 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

O night of woe ! O night of horror I when, like a peal of thunder, 
the dreadful words, — Henrietta is dying — Henrietta is dead, — 
burst upon us ! 

Ah, vain desire ! a still small voice replied. 
O, welcome hiding place ! O, refuge meet 
For fainting pilgrims, on this desert way ! 
Ah, miserable me ! when shall I be released from this bondage I 
The detestable wretch ! I did not suppose him capable ot' such 
superlative meanness. 



§ 109. RULES FOR THE USE OF THE EXCLAMA- 
TION POINT. 

1. It should follow every sentence expressive of great 
©motion, 

2. It should follow every word or phrase expressive of 
great emotion, unless such word is an interjection imme- 
diately followed by some exclamatory phrase or sentence. 
In such construction, the comma may be used after the 
interjection ; or, if the connection be clo'se, the comma 
may be omitted. 



§110. FIGURES OF GRAMMAR. 

Definition.- — Figures are allowable departures from 
the ordinary forms, constructions, or applications of words. 

Specification. — Hence figures of grammar are of three 
kinds : etymology, syntax, and rhetoric. 

Definition.— Figures of etymology are allowable de- 
partures from the ordinary forms of words. 



FIGURES OF GRAMMAR. 267 

Specification. — They are of seven kinds : aj)lieresis, 
apocope, syncope, prosthesis, paragoge, synaeresis, and 
tmesis. 

(1.) Apheresis allows the elision of one or more of the 
first letters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

'gainst, 1 g an J 'ncath, 'havior, 'scape, 

for against; began; beneath; behavior; escape. 

(2.) Apocope allows the elision of one or more of the 
last letters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

t 7 , th', tho 7 , o', fro 7 , gi 7 me 

for to; the; though; of; from; give me. 

(3.) Syncope allows the elision of one or mare of the 
middle letters of a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

listening, thund'ring, show'ry, med'cme, 

for listening ; thundering ; showery ; medicine. 

(4.) Prosthesis allows an additional syllable to be pre- 
fixed to a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

flr/?pertinent, ff^paid, adown, &<?strown, evanished, 
for pertinent; paid; down; strown; vanished. 

(5.) Paragoge allows an additional syllable to be an- 
nexed to a word. 

EXAMPLES. 

crouche/i, without*??*, deary, 

for crouch ; without ; dear. 

(6.) Synaeresis allows the sinking of two syllables into 
one. 

EXAMPLES. 

seest, Israel, drowned, 

for fcegst; Israel; drowned. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Dieeresis is the separating of two vowels into two 
syllables, which otherwise might form a dipthong. 

EXAMPLES. 

cooperate, aeronaut, reiterate, 

not cooperate ; aeronaut ; reiterate. 

(7.) Tmesis allows a word to be inserted between the 
parts of a compound word. 

EXAMPLES. 

on which side soever, to us ward, 

for on whichsoever side ; toward us. 



§111. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

Definition. — Figures of syntax are allowable depart- 
ures from the ordinary construction of words. 

Specification. — They are of five kinds : ellipsis, pleo- 
nasm, syllepsis, enallage, and hyperbaton. 

(1.) Ellipsis allows the omission of one or more words 
which are necessary to complete the grammatical con- 
struction of a sentence, but which custom has rendered 
unnecessary to complete the sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

Thy majestic greatness fills space, [ ] time, [ ] eternity. 
Who did this? I [ ]. 
One [ ] of my books. 

(2.) Pleonasm allows the introduction of superfluous 
words in a sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

The moon herself is lost in heaven. 
I know thee who thou art. 

There shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be 
thrown down. 



I 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 269 

Remark. — Substantives are sometimes introduced abruptly for the 
sake of emphasis, and then left without dependence on any other 
words. This is called the absolute case by pleonasm. 

EXAMPLES. 

He that planted the ear, shall he not hear? He that formed the 
eye, shall not he see ? He that chastiseth the heathen, shall 
not he correct? He that teacheth man knowledge, shall not he 
know ? 

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

The north and the south, thou hast created them. 
The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy wisdom, would he skip and play ? 

The eye that mocketh at his father, and despise th to obey his 
mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young 
eagles shall eat it. 

The king that faithfully judgeth the poor, his throne shall be es- 
tablished forever. 

The precious stones of Zion, comparable to fine gold, how are they 
esteemed as earthen pitchers. 

Thou that teachest a man should not steal, dost thou steal? Thou 
that abhorrest idols, dost thou commit sacrilege ? 

He that loveth not his brother whom he hath seen, how can he 
love God whom he hath not seen ? 

He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. 

Your land, strangers devour it in your presence. 

He that overcometh, to him will I give power. 

(3.) Syllepsis allows a word to be used different from 
its ordinary use. 

EXAMPLES. 

And there lay the steed with his nostrils all wide. 
The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld 
his glory. 

(4.) Enallage allows the use of one word for another 
of similar origin. 

EXAMPLES. 

A heart devote to man's best good. 
The timid hare limps awkward. 

(5.) Hyperbaton allows the transposition of words in 
a sentence. 

^ EXAMPLES. 

His voice sublime is heard afar. 
He wanders earth around. 

Note.— Figures of rhetoric will be treated of after the rules of syntactical con. 
struction have been gircn. 



2M ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

RULES OP^YNTAX. 

§112. CONJUNCTIONS, 

RULE t 

Conjunctions connect propositions and words. 

Remark 1. — Adverbs and pronouns are extensively employed as- 
conj unctions. (§ 39, § 40, § 81.) 

Remark 2. — Two conjunctions, or a conjunction and a verb in the- 
imperative mode, often come together iu consequence of a transpo- 
sition, of propositions. 

EXAMPL E* S . 

The contest will come; and, tulien it comes, may we be prepared foir 

the emergency. 
Our anticipations are not great ; and, if they should not all be~ 

realized, we shall not repine in utter despondency. 
I intend to be successful ; bat, if 1 fail in my first effort, I shall 

not be cast down. 

Remark 3. — When as immediately precedes if ar though, an in-* 
tervening proposition is implied ; -this intervening proposition being,' 
similar to that which precedes as* 

EIAIT LE'S; 

He acts as (he would act) if he had never been in society _ 
She appears as though she had been deeply afflicted* 

Remark 4. — Two correlative propositions are usually connected 
by a responsive conjunction. 

I. The conjunction always has some correlative word 
in the first proposition. This may be a verb in the im- 
perative mode, an adjective, or an adverb. The verbs 
most frequently used as correlatives are, suppose, grant, 
allow, permit, admit, if, though, and although, Yet, still, 
nevertheless, and then, are their responsive conjunctions. 
The conjunctions may be omitted, and then the correla^ 
tire propositions may be transposed. 






RULES OF SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 271 

EXAMPLES. 

Suppose we do not obey the moral law ; shall we not then incur 

its penalties. 
Suppose you wait till to-morrow ; you will then have sufficient 

time to do your business. 
Permit me to accompany you ; then I can direct you. 
Allow us to go on this vacation; then we shall be satisfied. 
If men were all perfectly honest, then would the machinery of 

society move smoothly. 
Grant me this request; then will I be content. 
Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Though hand join in hand, (yet) the wicked shall not go unpun- 
ished. 
Admit that he was wrong, yet that does not justify you in your 

wrong. 
Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, yet will I rejoice in the 

Lord. 
Though we were opposed on all sides, still we pressed on. 
If you get the advantage of us on this occasion, we shall, neverthe 

less, urge our claim at another time. 
If the intelligence were a mere blank before sensation began, 

then there never could be, in the intelligence, any thought of 

objective reality. 
If relation were nothing more than juxtaposition, it would still 

follow that intuitive judgment would be necessary in order to 

comprehend objects. 

If the words if, though, and although, are parsed as verbs, they 
are in the imperative mode, the same a3 the similar verbs permit, 
grant, &c, are. But if they must be parsed as conjunctions, then 
they are conjunctions introducing propositions, but not connecting. 
Nor will it answer to explain by saying that these propositions are 
transposed. The proposition introduced by if, may follow its re- 
sponsive; as, I will accompany you, if, my brother returns; but this 
is its transposed position, and not the regular order. It would regu- 
larly read, If my brother returns, I will accompany you. 



II. ADJECTIVES AS CORRELATIVES, AND ADVERBS OF 
THE COMPARATIVE DECREE. 



1. All adjectives, and adverbs of the comparative degree, 
are correlatives of than, unless the last of two correla- 
tive propositions contains a comparative degree, as a re- 
sult of the comparative in the first, or when the com- 
parative degree is followed by the preposition of, with its 
suiting substantive, expressed or implied. 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

There is none greater in this house than I. 
In the throne only will I be greater than thou. 
He loves his money more than his honors. 

The king of the north shall return, and set forth a multitude 
greater than the former. 

There are betwixt that smile we would aspire to, 
That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin, 
More pangs and fears than wars or women have. 
I am able now 
To endure more miseries, and greater far, 
Than my weak-hearted enemies dare offer. 
I understand him better than to suppose he will relinquish his 
design. 

— Yet methonght less far, 

Than that smooth, watery image. 
Nothing can be more unfortunate for the high interests of truth, 
or more absurd, than to advocate a philosophy, merely because 
it has been associated with Bible truth. 
It is also evident, that by each nation's devoting itself to that 
branch of production for which it has the greatest facilities, 
either original or acquired, its own happiness will be better pro- 
moted, and a greater amount of production created, than in any 
other way. 
The expeditions were generally successful; and the limits of the 

empire were more widely extended, than at any other period. 
The true moralist and theologist will be more earnest to uphold 
the foundations of morality and religion, than any particular 
speculations of secondary moment. 

(2.) 

The more you try to free yourself from censure, the more clearly 

will it appear that you have been indiscreet. 
The less we indulge our passions, the less imperious will be their 

demands. • 

The longer the work is delayed, the more difficult it will be to 

perform. 
The sooner we start, the farther we shall get 

(3.) 

He is the better scholar of the two. 
He is the wiser man. 

2. Other is occasionally a correlative of than, confirm- 
ing the reference to the word succeeding than. 






RULES OP SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 273 

EXAMPLES. 

She is no other than my sister. 
He is no other than the President. 
It is no other than he.. 
They sent me no other than he. 

I would not have consented to go on any other condition than that 
stated. 

3. Such and same are adjectives, and correlatives of as 
and that* 

EXAMPLES. 

m 

The lumber is not such as was promised. 

He has given him laws which are, necessarily, right, and such as 
he ought to obey. 

(2) 

He explained the whole to him in such a manner, that he ought to 

understand it by this time. 
My engagements are such that I can not attend. 

(3.) 

The property is nearly in the same position and condition as it has 

been for some years. 
I then understood the difference the same as I now do. 
The laws of the universe are the same as they were six thousand 

years ago. 

(4-) 

They are the same books that I got of you. 
This is the same demand that was made in the spring. 
That was the same man that had so long troubled us. 
I understand this to be the same proposition that Jonathan laid 
down in the beginning. 

Note. — A?, following such and same, is by some deemed to be a conjunctive 
pronoun. Perhaps, in some instances, it can be more easily disposed of as a con- 
junctive pronoun than in any other way ; yet, such a disposition is very question- 
able, as it is not well sustained by analogy. It is better to parse by supplying the 
ellipsis implied. 

III. ADVERBS AS CORRELATIVES. 

Besides adverbs of the comparative degree, rather \ oth- 
erwise, when, as, so, and not only, may be particularly no- 
ticed, as being often used as correlatives. 



274 ENGLISH GBAMMAR, 

1. Rather is a correlative of than, unless followed by 
an adjective, or an adverb restricted by it to a moderate 
degree of the quality ascribed to the object, 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 
fl would rather do that, than do worse. 

I had rather lose the property, than spend the time to collect it. 
I should prefer rather to seek my fortune among the isles of the 
ocean, or among the icebergs of Greenland, than take it unlaw- 
fully from my friend and neighbor. 
Good is rather to be chosen than evil. 

(2.) 

He is rather the best scholar in school. 
They are rather enterprising young men. 

2. Otherwise is sometimes a correlative of than. 

EXAMPLES. 

The task before me can not be otherwise than pleasant and hopeful. 
What I have stated, I know ; otherwise than this, I know nothing. 
There is a possibility of their being otherwise than as desired. 
Can we suppose that any of the volitions are determined other- 
wise than as foreseen ? 

3. When is a correlative of then. 

EXAMPLES. 

When it shall be well with thee, then remember me. 
; When I have completed my task, then will I attend to your de- 
mands ; and when I have thus done, then shall I hope to have 

6ome peace. 
When Herod, the king, had heard these things, then called he the 

chief priests and the scribes of the people together. 
When Christ shall appear the second time, clothed with power and 

great glory, then shall the earth be made glad, and resound with 

praises to its king. 
When science, art, and religion, shall have united to renovate the 

world, then shall the great era dawn, when the lion and the 

lamb shall lie down together. 

4. As is a correlative of as, with an adjective or an ad- 
verb intervening. Such phrases express equality, and the 
first as is an adverb, modifying the adjective or adverb. 



RULES OF SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 275 

EXAMPLES. 

They are as cheerful as the birds of a May morning. 

In addressing man as a responsible being, on questions of duty, 

the Bible is as transparent as the day. 
She is as well as I expected to find her. 
A great public as well as private advantage arises from everyone's 

devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers, and for 

which he is especially fitted. 
The style of Paul is as far removed from the philosophical at bis 

manner of thinking. 
The gospel may be efficacious to salvation in entire separation 

from philosophical systems now, as well as in the days of the 

apostles. 
He chose to make intelligent, free, and responsible agents, as well 
, as natural agents. 

5. As is a correlative of so, with two verbs, expressing 
proportion. As, in this construction, is an adverb modi- 
fying the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

As four are to eight, so are ten to twenty. 

As man, however degraded, can not lose all resemblance to m> 

manity, so human government, however imperfect, can not lose 

all traces of moral notions. 
As a man layeth himself down, so shall he be raised up. 
As he that taketh away a garment in cold weather, and as vinegar 

upon nitre, so is he that singeth songs to an heavy heart. 
As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country* 
As a man who eateth firebrands, arrows, and death, so is a man 

that deceiveth his neighbor, and saith, Am I not in sport ? 
.4* the fire goeth out where there is no wood, so the strife ceasetn 

where there is no tale-bearer. 
As coals are to burning coals, so is a contentious man to kindle 

strife. 
As a roaring lion and a raging bear, so is a wicked rule* over the 

poor people. 
As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that wandereth 

from his place. 

6. So is a correlative of as, with an adjective or an 
adverb intervening to limit the degree of comparison. 
So, in this construction, is an adverb, modifying the ad- 
jective or adverb following it.. 

EXAMPLES. 

How could you behave so arrogantly as you did on that occasion ? 
Why did you perpetrate so base a falsehood as that ? 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. So is also a correlative of as, with a negative deny- 
ing equality. 

EXAMPLES. 

Yon can not be so ungenerous as he has been. 

I am not willing to admit that I am so ignorant as you pretend, 

I could not have believed that he was so reckless as he has proved 

to be. 
He can not be so wicked as he is represented to be. 

8. So is a correlative of as, followed by an infinitive 
implying a consequence. 

EXAMPLES. 

They have so involved themselves in debt, as not to be able to ex- 
tricate themselves. 

Be not so greedy of popular applause, as to forget that the same 
breath that creates a fire may extinguish it again. 

He can not be so wicked as thus to deceive me. 

Can he be so degraded as to commit such a deed ? 

Yes ; he has so silenced the voice of reason and conscience, as to 
he able to commit any crime. 

9. So is a correlative of that, followed by a proposition 
expressing a consequence. 

EXAMPLES. 

He has been so much unwell, that he has been compelled to keep 

his bed. 
He speaks so low, that no one can hear him. 
The prospect appears so dubious, that I am doubtful whether I 

shall venture to engage in the enterprise or not. 

10. Not only is a correlative of hut, with also sometimes 
added. 

EXAMPLES. 

We not only refuse all such aid, but we absolutely despise it. 
These amusements are not only destructive to health, but they are 
also immoral in their tendencies. 

11. Whereas and because are correlatives of therefore. 



RULES OF SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 277 



EXAMPLES. 

Whereas the town of Boston has unfortunately become the most 
striking monument of ministerial tyranny and barbarity, &c. ; 
and whereas our brethren in the other colonies have contributed 
largely to our support in thi%rtime of our distress; therefore, 
voted, that this town, truly sensible of the generous assistance 
they have received from* their sympathizing brethren, return 
them their warmest and most sincere thanks for the same. 

Because we can not support such a man for the presidency, does it 
therefore follow, that we are the enemies of our country ? 



IV. BOTH, EITHER. NEITHER, AND WHETHER, AS COR- 
RELATIVES. 

1. Both may be a correlative of and. It has a joint 
reference to both propositions, phrases, or words, before 
which it stands, and indicates that they are both included 
in some connection or relation. 

EXAMPLES. 

They were both kind and benevolent. 

The present laws are both inconsistent and ineffectual. 

The saint and Christian have a prospect both of a resurrection and 

of future glory. 
Both you and I are subjects, both of civil and moral government. 

2. Neither may be a correlative of nor, and has a joint 
reference to both propositions, phrases, or words, before 
which it stands, and indicates that both are excluded from 
some connection or relation. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is neither industrious nor economical. 

Neither act nor decide too hastily. 

Neither persuasion nor threats should ever turn you from the path 

of rectitude. 
Let neither ambition nor approbativeness carry you beyon<J the 

bounds of just moderation. 

3. Either may be a correlative of or, and has a separate 
and equal reference to either proposition, phrase, or word, 
before which it stands, and indicates that one is included 
in, and the other excluded from, a certain connection or 
relation. 

21 



278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 



He is either a fool or a villain. 

He must either pay the debt or give satisfactory security. 

Either make the tree good, and its fruit good, or else make the 

tree corrupt, and its fruit corrupt. 
Every man is either selfish or benevolent, there being no half-way 

ground. 
Choose either one or the other. 
Either you or I must be greatly mistaken. 

4. "Whether may be a correlative of or, and has a sep- 
arate and equal reference to both propositions, phrases, 
or words, and implies one of two alternatives. 

EXAMPLES. 

I can not tell whether I shall go or not. 

I do not know whether he is in college or in Springfield. 

Whether they arise in the ordinary developments of human na- 
ture, or whether they are called forth by divine inspiration, 
there have always been abroad in the earth men whose holy 
ministry it was to inculcate the great duties of truth, justice, 
and benevolence. 

I knew a man in Christ, about four years ago, whether in the body 
I can not tell, or whether out of the body I can not tell : God 
knoweth. 

Therefore, whether it were I or they, so we preach. 

Whether we live or die, we are the Lord's. 



SPECIAL REMARKS. 

Remark 1. — In poetry, the use of or and nor, as correlatives of or 
and ?ior, is admissable, instead of either and neither, 

EXAMPLES. 

The soul that sees Him, or [either] receives, sublimed, 
New faculties, or learns at least t'employ 
More worthily the powers she learned before. 
Wealth heap't on wealth, nor [neither] truth nor safety brings. 
Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
Is nor of heaven nor earth. 
Or by the lazy Scheldt, or wandering Po. 
Or life or death was theirs. 
Nor threats nor death could terrify. 

Remark 2. — In the use of both, either ', neither, and whether, it is 
contemplated that, used in a correlative sense, they properly refer 






RULES OP SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 279 

to two things, and two only ; but this restriction is not always ob- 
served, though it undoubtedly should be. 

Remark 3. — Both, either, neither, and whether, in their correlative 
use, are adjectives when placed before substantives, and adverbs 
when placed before verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and prop- 
ositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

(10 

He complimented both my brother and myself. 
" u neither " nor " 

" " either " or " 

I do not know whether my brother or myself was complimented. 

(2.) 

He has both respected and obeyed me. 

" neither " nor " 

" either " or " 

I am uncertain whether he loves or hates me. 

I am desirous that he may be both polite and generous. 

a u n ti neither " nor " 

" " « " either " or " 

(3.) 

I wish that he was both almost and altogether such as I am. 
" " " neither " nor " " " 

« « ** either " or " " " 

(40 

He will both acknowledge his faults and make reparation, 
" neither " " nor " " 

** either " " or " " 

Remark 4. — The explanation of the correlative words, as given 
throughout this division, is believed to be philosophically correct ; 
yet many respectable grammarians prefer to call most of these cor- 
responding conjunctions. If any teacher who may use this grammar 
prefers to call them conjunctions, he can do so, by calling them cor- 
relative conjunctions; and those introducing the latter clause, re- 
sponsive conjunctions, as they have been ; and no confusion will 
arise from applying the former term. 

Remark 5. — Words connected by conjunctions are, usually, of the 
same construction ; that is, noirris connected are of the same case, 
verbs of the same mode and tense, adjectives or adverbs referring 
to the same word* 



280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 

I saw James and his brother. 

We respect you and them. 

He and I can not agree. 

You and I are both in fault. 

He studies hard, and learns well. 

They went and returned the same day. 

She is kind and generous. 

An intelligent and virtuous youth will gain the esteem of any 

society in which he mingles. 
He pleads eloquently and plausibly. 
You have acted judiciously and faithfully. 
I have sent him away with fair words and general civility. 

But verbs of different modes and tenses may be connected by con- 
junctions, when the sense will not be obscured thereby, nor the har- 
mony of the sentence particularly marred. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is indolent, and therefore will be poor. 

They mean, and would urge, something more than this. 

Whether we were or are. 

The whole has been done under the auspices, and is continued by 

the sanctions, of religion. 
They have induced, and will continue to induce, multitudes to them 

from the error of their ways. 
We are, and must necessarily be, under obligation to speak the 

truth. 

Remark 6. — The use of conjunctions permits a frequent omission 
of words. An adjective, auxiliary verb, or any word common to 
several words connected by a conjunction, is often expressed before 
the first, and omitted before the last. 

EXAMPL E.S. 

Such societies are inconsistent with all social virtue and hap- 
piness. 

This house and lot are for sale. 

He owns a good horse and carriage. 

We will pull down, and build larger. 

I can read, write, and work. 

Their books and clothes are always in bad order. 

Our time and attention are wholly occupied in preparing our 
work for the press. 

I have a house and garden. 

He is very cruel and vindictive in his character. 

But when it is intended to give particular force to the expressions, 
these words of common reference are repeated. 






RULES OF SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 281 

EXAMPLE. 

Christ, the power of God, and the wisdom of God. 

Remark 7. — When any word that is ordinarily used as an adverb 
or preposition, becomes a general connective between different parts 
of a discourse, it is to be parsed as a conjunction. Now, besides, 
therefore, moreover, however, and some others, are often used as 
conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES. 

You have asserted the principles upon which your conclusions 
are based. Now, I must be permitted to say, that I can not admit 
the conclusion from the premises. 

It was necessary, in connection with these precepts, that some 
motives should be presented to cause men to deny themselves. 
Now, it has been shown, that they believe in view of the char- 
acter and will of Jesus. 

Christ identifies himself with the most needy of mankind ; re- 
ceives an act of kindness done to them, as done to himself. 
Those that love Jesus, therefore, and expect his favor, must 
. serve Him by doing good to each other. Moreover, Christ has 
sanctioned these precepts by his own example. 

The efforts which a bad reader has to make, both disincline him to 
the task of reading, and hinder his appreciation of truth. Be- 
sides, a large proportion of the human family can not read, but 
all can understand their own language when spoken. In order, 
therefore, that the whole human family might be instructed, the 
living speaker would be the first, and best, and natural method. 

Mr. Gordon, who followed the inverted style in his translation of 
Tacitus, has sometimes done such violence to the language, as 
even to appear ridiculous. However, within certain bounds, 
and to a limited degree, our language does admit of inversion. 

Remark 8. — The conjunction and is often omitted, in order to 
bring objects before the mind in more rapid succession than could 
otherwise take place. But when, in grave discourse, it is desired to 
prevent quick transition of thought, and must be repeated between 
each word. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 
Now abideth faith, hope, and charity. 

Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, are before you. 
Auger, wrath, malice, and hate, rankled in his bosom. 

(2.) 

Such a man might fall a victim to power; but truth, and reason, 

and liberty, would fall with him. 
Days, and weeks, and months, and years passed, and no tidings 

came of the lost one. 



2S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

m 

Remark 9. — Than and as, used as conjunctions of comparison, re- 
quire the same construction after as before them. The ellipsis can, 
in all instances, be supplied ; but the application of the above prin- 
ciple is sufficient, and dispenses with the necessity of supplying 
awkward ellipses. Thus, in the example, "Knowledge is more than 
equivalent to force," if the ellipsis be supplied, it will stand, 
"Knowledge is more than that is which is equivalent to force." 
But instead of supplying the ellipsis, it will better comport with the 
idiom of our language, to parse equivalent as an adjective relating tcr 
a substantive suppressed after the comparative, which requires the 
same construction after as before it. Again, in the sentence, " He m 
no other than my brother," with the ellipsis supplied, it would read,- 
" He is no other than that person is who is my brother." But it 
were more simple, in parsing, to say that brother is in the nomina- 
tive case after the comparative, which requires the same construction 
after as before it. It will be remembered, that than expresses the 
comparison of inequality; and as, used- as a conjunction, the com- 
parison of equality. The conjunctive force of as is peculiar. It is 
used to connect participles and adjectives to their substantives ; 
nouns explanatory to the substantives they modify ; the infinitive 
mode to some word or phrase ; and a prepositive substantive modi- 
fier to some antecedent word. *This is the usual explanation ; but 
it is, doubtless, more philosophical to regard the principle stated at 
the. head of this remark, as applicable to such constructions. It is, 
undoubtedly, true, that all such forms are elliptical, and the words 
following as relate to, or depend upon, some word suppressed* 

EXAMPLES. 

Consciousness, as comprehending all intelligence, may be divided 
into the interior and exterior. 

Subject and object, as distinguished the one from the other, both 
become objects of knowledge. 

We must not regard the universe as governed by an arbitrary and 
wild phantasy. 

Causes may be conceived of, as simply limited in power, and in 
their causality, without implying difference in kind. 

Contemplate God, as creating, sustaining, and governing the uni- 
verse of intelligences. 

I have looked upon these parties as influenced by very bad motives. 

They have done the work as directed. 

We understand the question as definitely settled. 

It represents the mind as bending back to look upon itself. 

(2.) 

You will carefully notice these principles as distinguished from 

those of abstract science. 
They represent the science of mind as obscure and doubtful* 
He has long been known as favorable to the revolution,. 
His case has been given up as hopeless. 



RULES OF SYNTAX CONJUNCTIONS. 283 

(3) 

The feelings, thoughts, and volitions of our minds, as simple 'phe- 
nomena, can not be mistaken. 
We conceive of the Divine Being as the universal and sole cause. 
We regard him as a very worthy young man. 

As a friend, I advise you not to attend such places of amusement. 
Her qualities as a sovereign are acknowledged by all. 

(4.) 

He has so managed as to gain the confidence of the entire com- 
• m unity. 

I am so shrouded in conscious integrity as to defy all your threats*- 

(5) 

I am not informed as to the probable cost. 

As for myself, I am disposed to abide the decisions of the law. 

St is done the same as at first. 

They demand of us the same pay as in former times. 

Remark 10. — After a few verbs, signifying some operation of the 
mind, such as know, perceive, tell, show, &c, conjunctive pronouns, 
and conjunctive adverbs, introduce the infinitive mode, as a part o£ 
a fragmentary proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

I know not what to do. 
He does not see ivhere to go. 
¥ou can tell me how to act. 
T shall know when to return. 
They showed me which to take. 

In this last example, which is the objective case, as the recipient of 
take. The preposition to connects take with some verb suppressed, 
as am. 

SPECIAL REMARK. 

Let it be distinctly understood, that one prominent office of the 
conjunction is to condense language. It does this by introducing 
consequent clauses in an elliptical form. In parsing, the principle so 
often repeated is to be observed ; that is, the words in the elliptical 
clause modify, relate to, agree with, or depend upon, some word or 
words suppressed. Suppression requires ihe conjunction. No word 
is to be supplied in these elliptical expressions, except as an exercise 
to give the scholar a clear notion of the full force of the conjunction. 

POSITION. 

The regular position of the conjunction is between the proposi- 
tions connected ; but the conjunctive pronoun of two cases, often 
stands before both propositions, introducing the antecedent prop- 
osition, first. 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXAMPLES. 

What he said, he now denies. 
What we have done, is well known. 

Other transpositions are allowable, in introducing secondary proposi- 
tions. An example or two will be sufficient to call the attention of 
the scholar to a correct explanation of such examples as he may 
meet with. 

EXAMPLE. 

We used every argument in our power ; and, when argument failed, 
we appealed to his sympathies. 



§113. ADVERBS. 

RULE II. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, 
phrases, and propositions. 

Remark 1. — Any word, usually used as another part of speech, 
when used adverbially, is to be treated as an adverb. 

1. But, in the sense of only, is an adverb. 

2. All, in the sense of wholly, is an adverb. 

3. As, in the sense of so, is an adverb. 

4. Yet is often an adverb, and has various significations. 

Remark 2. — When a word, that is ordinarily used as an adverb, is 
used in any other sense, it is to be classed in conformity with its 
usage. 

EXAMPLES. 

The then occupants of the soil were indolent and reckless. 

The above remarks will serve to illustrate our position. 

He will go to-morrow evening. 

He was an only son. 

You can stay a little while. 

They have refused obedience until now. 

Let your yea be yea, and your nay, nay. 

Till then, who knew the force of those dire arms 1 

On the following day, Columbus came to where the coast swept 

away to the northeast for many leagues. 
Depart at once. 



RULES OF SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 285 

You then enter a large door, from whence the whole interior of the 

magnificent hall shows to the best advantage. 
He has enough to do to take care of himself. 
Israel said, It is enough. 
I have enough of earth. 
We have heard long enough. 
I can not find the books any where. 

Remark 3. — Well is a word in very common use, in ordinary con- 
versation, and sometimes in composition, as a kind of introductory 
expression. In this usage it is pleonastic. 

EXAMPLES. 

Well, let us go. 

Well, I will consider the matter, and let you know. 

Some have regarded this use of well as implying an ellipsis of some 
such expression as it is, introduced before well. 

Remark 4. — There, at the head of a proposition, is a euphonic 
word, modifying the proposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

There is not a person present who can say that. 

There is no sound or language where their voice is not heard. 

T%ere are no bells in Mohammedan countries. 

Remark 5. — Yes and yea, expressing an assent, and no and nay, 
expressing a negation, are not adverbs, but abbreviated replies to 
interrogations, and are equivalent to entire propositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

Will you permit me to use your book ? Yes. 
Can he meet all his engagements ? No. 

Remark 6. — Hither, thither, and whither, are often met with in 
older authors, but their use is now nearly obsolete. 

Remark 7. — Never was formerly used where the modern style re- 
quires ever. 

EXAMPLE. 

Ask me never [ever] so much dowry. 

Remark 8. — Here, there, and where, originally denoting place, are 
now used with a more extended signification. 

EXAMPLES. 

We felt pain in sensation, where we had expected pleasure. 
He turned here and there, but found no rest. 



235 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 9. — By is sometimes compounded with there and where. 

EXAMPLES. 

You have not complied with your promise, and thereby (by that 

means) have occasioned me much perplexity. 
Acquaint now thyself with Him, and be at peace, and thereby (by 

that means) good shall come unto thee. 
You have offended your parents, whereby (by which means) you 

have brought misery on yourself. 

Remark 10 — Two negatives are often used, with good effect, to 
express a positive proposition, provided the last negative is an adjec- 
tive or a verb. But when only is placed between the negatives, the 
negative sense is retained. In this construction, the last negative 
may be an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

This language is not z?zelegant. 

Such expressions are not improper-. 

The punishment should not be disproportionate to the offense. 

I am not ^pleased with your reply. 

The sad event was not unexpected. 

His talents are not imimproved. 

The mystery remained not long ?msolved. 

Your argument is not only ?71ogical, but it is out of place. 

He not only does not learn, but he does not want to. 

Remark 11. — Adverbs, like other parts of speech, may be repeated 
for the sake of emphasis. 

EXAMPLES. 

Verily, verily, I say unto you. 

You must never do it — never, never, never. 

There ! there ! see there ! 

Remark 12. — The meaning is often more forcibly and clearly ex- 
pressed by employing a preposition and .a noun instead of an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

This will, in truth (truly,) be a bad piece of business. 

1 can not, with propriety (properly,) comply with your request. 

Rkmark 13. — An adverb occasionally modifies a verb suppressed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Truly (I say,) he might have had an opportunity to return. 
The one writes neatly, and the other accurately. 



RULES OF SYNTAX ADVERBS. 287 

Remark 11. — Many conjunctive adverbs belong equally to both 
propositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

They will stay till we return. 

She will do the work when an opportunity is presented* 

I stayed whilst he was absent. 

Remark 15. — A preposition and a noun often perform the office of 
an adverb ; and in their adverbial character they may be modified 
by an adverb. 

EXAMPLES. 

You will find themes* below the surface. 

The meteor appeared just above the horizon. 

We had passed nearly around the block, when we discovered that 

our companion was missing. 
I labor almost to no purpose. 
The fleet might be seen far in the distance. 
They retired a few minutes before you came is. 
He got through with his work long before night. 

Remark 16. — Little, as an adverb, is frequently preceded by a; 

EXAMPLES,, 

The road turns a little to the right. 

The town is but a little elevated above the usual level of the lake> 

He is a little irregular in his habits. 

They are a little disposed to make us trouble. 

We have been a little disappointed. 

We are a very little pleased with such management. 

He studied a little, and then slept a little. 

Remark 17. — The often modifies an adjective, or an adverb of the 
comparative or superlative degree. 

EXAMPLE. 

The more you complain, the more you will have occasion to. 

POSITION. 

Adverbs must be placed in such a position as shall clearly show 
what they modify, and, at the same time, interrupt as little as pos- 
sible the close dependence of words upon each other. 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§114. PREPOSITIONS. 
RULE III. 

Prepositions connect words, and show how the conse- 
quent modifies the antecedent term of relation. 

Remark 1.— The preposition for may stand at the head of a phrase 
that is made the subject of a verb,, and will then have no antecedent 
term of relation. 

EXAMPLE & 

For men to be always fretting away their lives in securing prop- 
erty, is to act the part of slaves. 

For us to deny the existence of a Supreme Being, is the height of 
folly. 

Kemark 2. — When two prepositions come together in a sentence, 
they may be regarded as a compound preposition ; yet, in disposing 
of them, the office that each performs should be clearly pointed out* 

EXAMPLES. 

They fled from Before the majesty of his face. 
Have you seen those rude barbarians who came from beyond the 
mountains ? 

POSITION. 

1. The preposition, and its consequent, should be placed in that 
position, where they clearly indicate their relation to the antecedent. 

EXAMPLES. 

Of all men, the miser is the most to be pitied. 
In the course of his preparation for the ministry, he had studied 
so as to injure his health. 

2. When the conjunctive pronoun that is the consequent term of a 
preposition, it can not follow the preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

They are the same that you asked for. 
It is the best book that you sent after. 

Which and whom, as the consequent term of the relation, are some- 
times separated from the preposition, but not without doing violence 
to the smoothness of construction. 



RULES OF SYNTAX EXPLANATORY SUBSTANTIVE. 2S9 

§115- EXPLANATORY SUBSTANTIVE. 
RULE IV. 

A substantive, explanatory of another substantive, and 
signifying the same thing, must agree with it in case. 

Remark 1. — This rule is designed to embrace what is usually ar- 
ranged under two distinct rules : 

1. "A noun or pronoun, used to explain a preceding noun or pro- 

noun, is put by apposition in the same case." 

2. "Intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, take the same case 

after as before them, when both words refer to and signify 

the same thing." 
But the rule, as given above, comprehends every variety of construc- 
tion that is embraced in the rules given in the remark. The latter 
rule is as truly a rule of agreement as the former ; and the distinc- 
tion between the two varieties of construction, is kept up by notic- 
ing, in the latter construction, that the substantives agreeing in case 
are connected by an intervening verb, called a copula. 

Remark 2. — There is purely an idiomatic exception to the above 
rule; where, in the use of the participial mode, the subject is in 
the possessive case, then the explanatory substantive is in the nomina- 
tive or objective case. (§ 76.) 

Remark 3. — A noun is sometimes used explanatory of a proposi- 
tion. The explanatory noun is, in such instances, in the nominative 
case, as will be evident by supplying an ellipsis. 

EXAMPLES. 

He stole my purse, an offense easily forgotten. 

He deprived me of my character, an act for which nothing can 

atone. 
American independence was declared in seventeen hundred and 

seventy-six, an event which excited the world's admiration. 
Every ponderable body tends toward the earth, a fact of every 

day's observation. 
The notion of a Great First Cause is inherent in every sane mind, 

a truth which philosophers generally admit. 
The mind of man aspires to futurity, an evidence of its immortality. 

Remark 4. — A substantive phrase, or proposition, is frequently ex- 
planatory of a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

The commandment is, to love God and our neighbor, 
The design, of study is, to expand the mind* 
25 



290 ENGLISH GRAEMAE 

The aim of every Christian should be, to glorify God, 

The design of Christ's mission was, to save fallen man. 

Their only hope was, to save themselves by flight. 

The injunction is, to come out from among them, and be separate. 

Remark 5. — The explanatory substantive is sometimes connected 
to the principal substantive by the conjunction arnd 7 aiwi frec^u-entry 
fey the conjunction as* 

EX AMPLES. 

The saint, the father, and the pilgrim, prays. 

He is my friend and protector. 

Franklin, the philosopher and statesman, was the son of a poo? 

chandler. 
Burritt, the learned blacksmith, is ako the able advocate of lil> 

erty, and devoted friend of peace. 
They are friends and helpers. 
He acted as door-keeper. 
Me officiated as president. 
As your friend, I entreat you to be moderate. 
As a people, it is generally conceded that we lack nationality of 

feeling. 
All men regard themselves and others as subjects of moral gov*- 

ernment. 
Our Divine Lord came into the world as a teacher. 
Our salvation, as a nation, depends on the teacher. 
For this, society is responsible — not considered as an abstraction, 

but society as it exists, composed of living members, which 

members we are. 

Remark 6 : . — Two or more substantives, referring to* different per- 
sons or things, may have a substantive agreeing with them in the 
plural, comprehending the whole ; but if they refer to the same 
person or thing, the agreeing substantive must be singular. 

EXAMPLES. 

Jefferson and Adams, distinguished statesmen and presidents , died 

on the same day. 
James and John, sons of Zebedee, came unto him. 
The terms of our law will hardly find terms that answer to them 

in the Spanish or Italian, no scanty languages.- 

Remark 7. — A distributive term, in the singular, may be explana- 
tory of a comprehensive plural. 

EX AMPLES. 

They love each other.— (Each is a distributive term, explanatory of they.) 
Men of wisdom perform their duty, each in Ms proper sphere,. 



1UJLES OF SYNTAX — EXPLANATORY SUBSTANTIVE. 291 

The four beasts bad each six wings. 

The king of Israel, and the king of Jiida.li, sat each on his throne. 

Thou also, and Aaron, take each of you his censer. 

They regard each other's interests. 

They stood one upou the other. 

They respect each man his neighbor. 

They seek every one his own interest 

Remark 8.— Several terms, denoting a part, are sometimes used 
explanatory of a comprehensive plural, 

EXAMPLES. 

*They all ran off, some one way, and some another. 
Crrant unto us that we may sit, one on thy right hand, and the other 
on thy left hand, hi thy kingdom. 

Remark 9. — A plural substantive is frequently used explanatory 
after several particular words or phrases .comprehended under it. 

EXAMPLES. 

Comfort, peace, prosperity, all were sacrificed. 

To say that love is the fulfilling of the whole law, that benevo- 
lence is the whole of true religion, that the whole duty of man 
to God and his neighbor is -expressed in one word — love ; these 
statements, though true, are so comprehensive, as to need, with 
all minds, much amplification and explanation. 

Royalists, republicans, churchmen, courtiers, all parlies concurred 
in the illusion. 

Selfishness, ambition, hatred, all combine to make the tyrant. 

To open the gates of knowledge, to elevate the standard of reli- 
gious liberty, to withdraw the restraints of law from the elective 
franchise, and to recognize the inalienable rights of all ; these 
will insure success to any nation. 

Adams, Burritt, Hale, Giddings; they are men whom coming gen- 
eratiens will hail as guardians of liberty. 

Remark 10. — In the names of individuals, the family name is the 
•principal, and the other name or names are explanatory by way of 
distinction. It is customary to parse the several names together as 
& compound name. 

EXAMPLES. 

John Jacob Astor was the wealthiest man in the United States. 

John Quincy Adams was a native of Massachusetts. 

Martin Van Bureu was the eighth president of the United States. 

George Washington was the lather of his country. 

Daniel Webster is the greatest orator of the age. 

Tile Marguis De La Fayette was an ardent friend of Washington. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



POSITION. 



1. The position of the explanatory substantive is usually after the 
substantive that it is designed to explain ; but another construction 
is sometimes admissible, and sometimes necessary. 

EXAMPLES. 

From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclosed, 

Child (child explanatory) of the sun, refulgent Summer, comes. 

The resplendent orb of night, pale-faced Luna, had sought the west. 
The mightiest monarch of the Bourbon line, Louis Philippe, has 

fallen. 
The soft-voiced messenger of hope, Spring, has come, to cheer the 
• dreary abode of a heart bereft of joy. 
Son of wrong, child of grief, hopeless wanderer, Indian, speak ! 

2. Agreement in case, a verb intervening, requires the principal 
substantive before the verb, and the explanatory substantive after it, 
except that in interrogative propositions, or in declarative proposi- 
tions, the terms may be transposed for oratorical or poetical effect. 

(1.) In indefinite interrogative propositions, the explanatory term 
is placed before the verb, and the principal term after the verb or its 
first auxiliary. 

EXAMPLES. 

Who art thou ? Who must it be ? 

What was it ? Who was she ? 

But thou, O Hope ! with eyes so fair, 

What was thy delighted measure ? 
Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, 
And even his faults leaned to virtue's side. 

(2.) In definite interrogatives, both terms come after the verb, the 
principal term being placed first. 

EXAMPLES. 

Am I not a man? 

Are we not Israelites? 

Are you a scholar ? 

Is she your mother ? 

Is she the lady whom I saw in your class ? 

Is it my friend who thus addresses me ? 

(3.) When an interrogative proposition assumes a declarative 
form, by being made to depend on the verbs say, tell, guess, inquire, 
and those of like import; or when the answer to the interrogative 
Is made to depend on these same verbs ; both terms are placed be- 
fore the verb, and the explanatory is placed before the principal. 



RULES OF SYNTAX- — SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 293 

EXAMPLES. 

May I know who she is ? 
You may not know who she is. 
I can not tell who it was. 
Inquire whose son the stripling is. 
He can not long be what he now is. 
You can not guess who it is to be. 

(4.) Various transpositions are allowable in oratory and poetry, 
These will be better understood by studying oratory and poetry 
than by any formal rules. 

EXAMPLES. 

A generous-hearted youth was he. 

No contemptible creature was he. 

Great are his perils, in this stormy time, 

Who rashly ventures on the sea of rhyme. 
Furious he spoke ; the angry chief replied, 
Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night 



§116. SUBJECT OF THE VERB, 
RULE V. 

The subject of the personal verb must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Remark 1. — The subject of a personal verb may be, 1. a noun ; 
2. a pronoun ; 3. a substantive phrase ; and 4. a substantive prop- 
osition. 

Remark 2. — The subject of the verb may be omitted, when the 
sense is sufficiently plain without it. 

(1.) Upon this principle, the subject of the verb in the imperative 
mode, second person, is almost uniformly omitted, unless iu highly 
animated oratory or poetry, and even then it may be. 

(2.) In declarative and interrogative propositions; in poetry, the 
nominative is occasionally omitted. 



20# ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXAMPLES. 



Lives there, who loves his pains ? 

Are there, who lodge a soul immortal in their breasts, unconscious 
as the mountain of its ore, or rock of its inestimable gem ? 

Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor; 

Who lives to fancy, never can be rich. 

There are, who never cau be poor, 

(3.) After the conjunctions than and as, the nominative is often 
©mitted- 

B X ; A MP L E' m 

Our success has been better than was anticipated* 

They gave more money than was promised. 

He took more food than was proffered. 

We have done as well as could have been expected';. 

He- can read as well as write. 

He wrote as was directed. 

Remark 3. — Methmhk and methought are used for I think and T 
thought. This is idiomatic, and the pronoun me, in the objective: 
<3aae 3; is joined with the verb in the third person.. 

POSITIONS 

The regular position of the nominative, in declarative and hyp©** 
fhetical propositions, is before the verb ; yet some constructions re- 
quire the nominative to come after the verb, or its first auxiliary, and 
others will admit inversion at pleasure. 

(1.) A hypothetical proposition, introduced without a conjunc- 
tion, requires its nominative to be placed after the verb, or its first 

auxiliary, 

EX- AM. PL FSv 

Had I the means, T would visit Europe this season-. 

Did he understand me, he would treat me differently. 

Had I known the circumstances, I might have avoided the calamity. 

Were all men holy, there would be need of law were not all 

equally well informed. 
Should I flee, I might be overtaken. 
Had I the ability j, I would defend the cause. 

(2.) When the proposition is introduced by the euphonic there^ 
the nominative usually comes after the verbi. 

EXAMPLES. 

There was no man more able than he. 

There is no truth in the assertion, that " msjr can chattelize his* 

fallow-man." 



RLLErf OF SkNTAX SUBJECT OK THE VERD. 295 

There was more plausibility than sound reason in the argument. 

There has been a time when the advocacy of such a sentiment 
would lead a man to the scaffold. 

There will be an awful retribution for the oppressors of the help- 
less African. 

There was a man, — and many such you might have seen, — who 
never had a dozen thoughts in all his life. 

(3.) When the proposition is introduced by neither or nor, used as 
conjunctive adverbs, the nominative must come after the verb, or its 
first auxiliary. 

EXAMPLES. 

He did not return, nor was he censured. 

He has not come, neither will he come. 

He was fearful of danger, nor was his apprehension groundless. 

He did not pay me, nor did he acknowledge the obligation. 

He has not met the demand, neither has he ability to meet it. 

He knew not the danger, nor did he care to know. 

(4.) The regular position of the nominative, when expressed in 
imperative propositions, is after the verb or its auxiliary. 

(5.) The position of the nominative, in definite interrogative prop- 
ositions, is after the verb or its auxiliary ; but in indefinite inter- 
rogutives, the nominative usually comes first, though this is not an 
invariable rule. 

EXAMPLES. 

Need I call to your remembrance the contrasted scenes of which 

we have been witnesses ? 
What has been the cause of your indifference? 
Did our citizens lose their perseverance and magnanimity? 
What was the consequence of your visit? 

Shall / become more particular, in order to gain your favor? 
When was it that America attracted most strongly the admiration 

of mankind, and impressed her enemies with the greatest fear ? 
When did Athens appear the greatest and most formidable ? 
Who are thine accusers? 
Shall not God avenge his elect, who cry unto Him day and night, 

though He bear long with them ? 

Man ! can thy doom no brighter soul allow ? 
Still must thou live a blot on nature's brow ? 
Shall war's polluted banner ne'er be furled ? 
Shall crime and tyrants cease but with the world ? 
What! are thy triumphs, sacred truth, belied? 
Why, then, hat£ l'lato lived, or Sidney died 1 
Shall not the fall of the mighty affect us 1 



296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which of you, by taking thought, can add one cubit to his stature?" 
Where am I ? What sort of a place do I inhabit ? Is it exactly 
accommodated, in every instance, to my convenience 7 Is there 
no excess of cold, none of heat, to offend me ? Am I never 
annoyed by animals, either of my own kind or of a different? 
Is every thing subservient to me, as though I had ordered it 
myself ? 

Remark. — Numerous other instances, in which the nominative 
may either come before or after the verb, may be more easily 
learned by the examination of authors, than by any rules that can be 
laid down. 



§117, AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 

RULE VI. 

The personal verb must agree with its nominative, in 
person and number. 

Remark 1. — When the nominative is a substantive proposition, or 
substantive phrase, containing unity of thought, however complex, 
the verb agrees with it in the singular number. 

EXAMPLES. 

To comprehend the mysterious connection of mind with matter, 
is beyond the reach of human ability. 

To suffer afflictions with cheerfulness, is characteristic of a noble 
mind. 

For a man to despise his fellow, on account of condition or color, 
is indicative of a sordid, selfish mind. 

To give is better than to receive. 

Caviling upon non-essential points, is characteristic of the sophisti- 
cal reasoner. 

The learning of principles is difficult; but the application of them 
is more difficult. 

Remark 2. — The verb often agrees with a nominative, in per- 
son and number, which is implied or suppressed. This embraces 
all those instances of suppressed nominatives mentioned under 
Rule V. ; and to these we may add need and want, used without a 
nominative expressed, and preceded by the euphonic there. The 
implied nominative is some person, any one, &c. 






RULES OF SYNTAX AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 297 

EXAMPLES. 

There needs no argument to prove his folly. 

There needed the proof deduced from miracles, in confirmation of 

the doctrines of our Saviour. 
There needs no proof of the self-evident truth of man's equality. 
There wants no part for the harmonious administration of God's 

government. 
There wauts nothing, in the arrangements of mercy and grace, to 

insure mau's happiness. 
There wants nothing to insure success, 

Remark 3. — When a singular nominative is a collective noun, im 
plying plurality of thought, the verb must agree with it in the plural ; 
but when it implies unity of thought, the verb must agree with it in 
the singular. 

EXAMPLES. 

Tne council were divided in opinion. 

The board of examiners declare his qualifications to be indifferent. 

The faculty of the institution are unittd. 

The cabinet are assembled. 

The whole crew were terrified by the storm. 

The class are dismissed. 

The nation is powerful. 

The church is divided. 

The family was broken up by the inattention of the father to his 

duties. 
The army was beaten, and sent under the yoke. 
The host of Egypt was drowned in the Red Sea. 
The drove was disposed of advantageously. 

Remark 4.— A few nouns, not ordinarily collective in signification, 
are, by figure of speech; used collectively. 

EXAMPLES. 

■m. 

Five sail of the line were seen at a distance. 

Two pair were completely spoiled. 

Ten head of cattle were sold for four hundred dollars. 

One paii- was repaired. 

Remark 5. — Two or more singular nominatives, taken conjointly, 
require a plural verb, unless they refer to the same person or thing 

EXAMPLES. 

(10 

The horse and cow were sold for one hundred dollars. 

The man and woman were married 

The boy and girl go to school. 

The camel and ostrich are found on the desert of Sahara. 



298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) 

That scholar and poet has become very distinguished. 

That statesman and philosopher was an honor to his age. 

The distinguished traveler and historian immortalized his name. 

The hero and conqueror of Europe lies as low as the meanest serf. 

The polite gentleman and accomplished scholar may find access to 

any respectable community. 
The naturalist and poet finds beauty every where. 

Remark 6. — Two or more singular nominatives, taken separately, 
require a singular verb. The following are some of the more frequent 
circumstances in which they are taken separately: — 

1. When connected by or or nor. 

2. When the nominatives are preceded by each, every, or no, though 

connected by and. 

3. When one of the nominatives is preceded by not. 

4. When the nominatives are connected by as well as, or but. 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 
The man or woman was guilty of misconduct. 
The boy or girl was injured by the fall. 
The house or farm is to be sold. 
The ship or crew must be lost. 
The horse or carriage is at your disposal. 

(2.) 

Each day, each hour, and each moment, yields its blessings. 
Every leaf, every shrub, every loved spot, has a sacredness to win 

the soul. 
Each kind word, each fond look, every sympathetic tear, is held in 

fond remembrance. 
Every man, every woman, and child, has an appropriate sphere of 

action. 
No man, no woman, no child, is independent of society. 
No citizen, no statesman, no mechanic, no fanner, is exempt from 

the duty of reciprocal kindness. 
No association, no article of compact, has power to nullify .a single 

right pertaining to manhood. 

(3.) 

Ambition, not scientific culture or moral worth, was his quali- 
fication. 
Hope, not fear, inspires the Christian. 

Internal commotion, not the man of the North, destroyed Rome. 
Charity, not revenge, is a Christian grace. 
Slavery, not liberty, rules in the councils of our nation 
A man, not a monkey, was promised me. 



i 



RULES OF SYNTAX — SUBSTANTIVE OF POSSESSION. 299 

(4.) 
Evil, as well as good, is sometimes the portion of man. 
Duty, as well as inclination, impels me to come to you without delay. 
Ambition, as well as patriotism, spurs the conqueror on. 
Economy, as well as perseverance, is an indispensable means of 
success. 

Remark 7. — If the nominatives, taken separately, are of different 
persons or numbers, or both, the verb must agree with the leading 
or principal nominative; but if the nominatives, taken conjointly, are 
of different persons or numbers, or both, the verb must be plural, 
and in the first person rather than the second, and in the seoond 
rather than the third. 

EXAMPLES 

They, as well as he, are honest. 

You or I are censurable for the affair. 

You, as well as he, must study. 

He or I will obtain the premium. 

The men, as well as the boy, were engaged in the affair. 

Congressmen, as well as the President, should be men of integrity. 

(2.) 
You and 2" shall meet under different circumstances. 
The scholars and I love to meet. 
You and he were together when I saw you last. 
My sister and I are intending to visit you soon. 
Your friends and you will be welcome at all times. 
Your friends, yourself, and I, can spend our time agreeably togetlser 
during the summer. 

. POSITION. 
What has been said relative to the position of the nominative to 
the verb, is sufficient to show, in a general manner, the position of 
the verb. 



§ lift SUBSTANTIVE DENOTING POSSESSION OR 
ORIGIN. 

RULE VII. 

A substantive, modifying another substantive, and de- 
noting possession or origin, must be in the possessive 
case, if placed before the substantive modified ; but if 
placed after the substantive modified, it must be in the 
objective case, as the consequent term of the^preposition, 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. EXAMPLES DENOTING POSSESSION. 

This is my uncle's will. 

This is the will of my uncle. 

I have received the court's decision — (the decision of the court.) 

You have your lawyer's opinion — (the opinion of your lawyer.) 

Note. — It must not be understood, that we can, in all instances, express the pos- 
sessive by both methods with equal propriety. 

2. EXAMPLES DENOTING ORIGIN. 

You will hand me Webster's Dictionary. 
Wilson's gold pen is perhaps the best now in use. 
Morse's telegraph is the greatest invention of the day. 
Davies' course of mathematics is extensively used. 
Ireland's starving children are flocking to America. 
New England's noble sons are displaying their native talent the 
world over. 

Remark 1. — When the modified word is sufficiently obvious, it 
need not be expressed. 

EXAMPLES. 

You will find him at Mr Green's (store.) 

We left the books at Mr. Clark's. 

The party was at the merchant's. 

The litigation was the attorney's. 

My first acquaintance with her was at her father's. 

The boy is at his mother's. 

Remark 2. — When a part only of several objects is mentioned, 
both signs of the possessive are used, and the latter substantive is 
suppressed, upon the principle noticed in the first remark. 

EXAMPLES. 

An essay of Burke's (essays) was read. 

An oration of Henry's (orations) is still extant, showing his views 

on that subject. 
You will find a book of mine (my books) at Fenner T s. 
A sword of Washington's is preserved in the Boston Museum. 
A book of his was injured. 
A library of the emperor's has been presented to the society. 

Remark 3. — Omissions of the possessive sign are of frequent oc- 
currence. 

(1.) A compound name has the possessive sign after the last nonn 
only, being omitted after the others. 

EXAMPLES. 

You can obtain the work at the book-binder's. 

The Marquis De La Fayette's name is dear to Americans. 

Martin Van Ultren's residence is at Kinderhook. 






RULES OF SYNTAX SUBSTANTIVE OF POSSESSION. 301 

(2.) When the substantives connected indicate joint possession, 
the possessive sign is used only alter the last. 

EXAMPLES. 

James and Henry's property. 

It was the men, women and children's lot to suffer great calamities. 

But when they indicate separate possession, the sign must be used 
after each noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

The books and cards are Joint's and Mary's. 

The personal property and real estate became the son's and 

daughter's. 
Those books and papers are the president 's and secretary's. 

(3.) When an explanatory noun is added to a possessive substan- 
tive, it does not take the possessive sign. 

EXAMPLES. 

You can get them at Underhill's. the bookseller and stationer. 

His talents, as a teacher, are of the first order. 

Your business, as a student, is study. 

Here lies his head, a youth to fortune and to fame unknown. 

Moral order depends upon the harmonious action of all our powers, 

as individuals and members of society. 
This Psalm is David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the people. 
He took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative. 

Remark 4. — The possessive sometimes modifies a substantive phrase. 
EXAMPLES. 

If we are deceived in respect to our being subjects of moral gov- 
ernment, we are sure of nothing. 

All presumption of death's being the destruction of living beings, 
must go upon the supposition that they are compound. 

I remember its being reckoned a great exploit. 

I can produce evidence of my being at home in season. 
. You must convince me of your being a worthy subject. 

"We need have no fear of the government's being too economical. 

Edwards' system is contained in Part I. of his " Inquiry into the 
Freedom of the Will." 

Remark 5. — The possessive sign may be transferred from the pos- 
sessive noun to an objective used as an inseparable modifier of the 
possessive. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is the Pope of Rome's legate. 

This is owing to the Author of nature's acting upon us every mo- 
ment. 

26 



302 ENGL IS PI GRAMMAR. 

He entered into the captain of the guard's house. 

The king of England's throne must soon totter to its foundation. 

The bard of Lornmond's lay is done. 

Of the children of Israel's half, thou sha.lt have one portion. 

The king of Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem; and Jeiemiah 

the prophet was shut up in the court of the prison, which was 

in the king of Judah's house. 

Note. — In the first example, Pope is the possessive, and modifies legate ; Rome 
is the objective, and modifies Pope ; and legate is explanatory of he. The oth- 
ers are to be similarly explained, 

POSITION, 

The position of the possessive is sufficiently manifest from the 
rule and remarks. 



§119. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 

RULE VIII. 

A pronoun must agree with tne substantive it repre- 
sents, in person, number, and gender. 

Remark 1.— Principles already given in relation to the agreement 
of the verb, in particular instances, are equally applicable to th© 
agreement of pronouns with the substantives they represent. 

EXAMPLES. 

The boy and girl are studying their lessons. 
James and Ann love their parents. 

When the ox and the horse saw their master, they ran away to- « 
gether. 

(2.) 

That scholar and poet has rendered his name renowned. 
That distinguished patriot and statesman will be remembered fof 
ages after he shall have been swept to dust. 

C3-) 
The house or farm will be sold at its lowest value. 
I do not know whether Socrates or Plato is celebrated most for 
his wisdom. 



RULES OK SYNTAX AGREEMENT OF TRONOUNS. 303 

Each day, and each hour, yields its own blessings. 
Each leaflet, and each petal, when it is unfolded, displays its Cre- 
ator's wisdom. 

(5.) 

The reason, not the sensitivity, is that which will direct aright. 
The good of the public, not the property stolen, is that for which 
we prosecute. 

(6.) 

George, as well as James, has been engaged in his profession. 
Vice, as well as virtue, has its rewards. 

Remark 2. — A general remark on each of the pronouns, may not 
be amiss. 

WE. 

We, the first person, may be used — 

1. To indicate the speaker, and one or more, who are known to the 
hearers, included with him. 

EXAMPLES. 

George and I have got our lessons, and we can now spend a little 
time in play. 

The boys and I are expecting that we shall have an interesting 
vacation* 

The committee and myself are fully aware that we are undeserv- 
edly censured. 

2. We is sometimes used by an individual when he would speak 
officially, authoritatively, or advisedly; but when he has occasion to 
use the compound, he uses ourself, and not ourselves. 

EXAMPLES. 

We can not, as editor, permit our patrons to say what we shall 

publish. 
As for ourself, we can not sanction such conduct. 

3. We is used very frequently, a3 applied to an entire people, 
party, sect, nation. 

EXAMPLES. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident. 
As Americans, we can not love our country too much. 
Vice,- seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 
Although our opponents seem to be successful at present, yet we 

hope that truth may spread her pinions, and we arise. 
We are fallen beings, and can only be restored by the interposition 
of Divine mercv 



304 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

YOU. 

1. You is used to represent an indefinite number of individuals. 

EXAMPLES. 

You know your duty a3 moral beings. 

Oh ! my countrymen, when will you assert those rights guarantied 

to you by your Constitution? 
The heathen would call upon you for aid. 

2. You is usually used in speaking, when only one person is 
meant, as well as when more than one is intended ; but from this 
construction, we can not regard it singular in form. Singular in 
meaning it is, but not in form ; for when in the nominative, the verb 
always agrees with it in the plural. 

EXAMPLES. 

John, you may come here. 

James, you are very inconsistent. 

Henry, when you have finished your lesson, you may exercise on 

the square. 
Mary, let your teacher assist you in your undertaking. 

HE. 

1. He is used in representing some particular individual. 

EXAMPLES. 

Mr. W. says, that he can accommodate you. 

Thomas remarked, that he would go. 

Ethan expects that he will finish his studies soon. 

2. He is used indefinitely, referring to any individual of the human 
family, whether male or female. 

EXAMPLES. 

He who can not take a jest, should not give one. 

My spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is flesh. 

He who would learn wisdom, must learn to think. 

He who anticipates most, sometimes enjoys least. 

The truly great, is he who is truly good. 

He that will drink at the fountain of knowledge, let him come, 

SHE. 

1. She is used to designate some particular individual of the fe- 
male sex. 

EXAMPLES. 

Jane went home when she had closed her school. 
Maria lives where she did last year. 



RULES OP SYNTAX AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. oQ& 

2. She is used to represent any one indifferently of a society of fe- 
males, or of the female sex in general. 

EXAMPLES. 

Each member of the Ladies' Industrial Association, has her work as- 
signed her, by a committee selected for that purpose. 

Not a single daughter of our race, but what ha3 some duty assigned 
her. 

Woman should be so educated, as to regard her own dignity too 
much to stoop to frivolity. 

High Heaven has assigned an influence to woman's character, 
which she alone must exert. 

The good or evil consequences of this influence, depend upon the 
exertion she makes. 

Education is as necessary for woman in her sphere of action, as fo¥ 
man iu his. 

IT. 

•1. It is used to represent some particular thing. 

EXAMPLES. 

You can finish the job, and charge it to my account. 
The tree was cut from its base, and it fell to the ground. 
The work was performed by those employed to do it. 
The house remains where it stood twenty years ago. 
That mountain tells its own history, and yet it seems all mystery 
to us. 

2. It is used to represent a phrase, which phrase is, of course, used 
as a noum 

EXAMPLES. 

It is my greatest pleasure to hear of your prosperity. 

It would be desirable to have your company. 

It is a delightful task to train the young. 

It may be our lot to drink of misfortune's cup. 

Let those who choose it continue in perverting their minds. 

It is necessary that the business should be done. 

It is ever the best policy to be strictly honest. 

It is a mark of wisdom sometimes to be silent. 

To write correctly is essential, although it is a rare accomplishment. 

3. It is used to represent a proposition, which proposition is used 
as a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

It might have been expected, that humanity itself would have 

elicited their warmest sympathies. 
It is remarked, that he was industrious. 
It may be questioned, whether he completed the work> 



S^06 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

It is well said, that "labor conquers all things." 
It frequently happens, that men become elevated by email ad- 
vancements, 
It is well that we should hope, even .in: the darkest hours. 

4. It is used to represent a person of the first, second, or third' 
person, of the singular or plural number, and of the masculine 01* 
feminine gender; not to indicate personal identity, but rather to refe? 
to the person or persons as an object. This use of it always re- 
quires an intransitive verb, followed by a pronoun indicating peiv 
sonal identity. 

EXAMPLES. 

It was I who saw you. 

It is I, be not afraid. 

It was Judas who betrayed Christ- 

It is you who have need to be' ashamed. 

William says, it was I that frightened you. 

Nelson, was it you that finished this ? 

It matters not who it was that did it, since he has done it so well, 

It is James and Johu. 

Who is making that noise ? It is the boys and girls in the park. 

It may be James and Darwin, and their sisters. 

Do you suppose it possible that it was Jane ? 

It is Susan and I who have been to blame. 

It might have been Horace and Emma whom you saw last evening ; 

was it not? 
It was John, and you, and I, who w r ere selected 
It was Henry, Jane, I, and the stove, that he talked of taking. 
It is the popular opinion, that it will be some great personage ; it 

may be the King or Queen, or perhaps the Duke of York. 

Note. — A pronoun, used as contemplated by this remark, is to be parsed agree- 
ing with the word it represents, not as a person, but as an object, and hence agree- 
ing with it in the neuter gender. 

5. It is used to represent the operations of nature, or a state or 
condition of persons or objects. 

EXAMPLES. 

It rains. It is very cold weather. 

How is it with you to-day ? 

How is it with you, General ? 

It thunders. It freezes. 

Do you think it will snow? Will it be colder? 

It was very warm yesterday. 

It is delightful this morning. 

It may be showery this afternoon. 

It is very cold at the North. 

" Come, and trip.it as you got" 

6. It is used indefinitely, without reference to any particular m 
general object' 



StffcE'S U* v Si'N'SAX— AGREEMENT OF PftONOtfttS, %0% 

EXAMPLES. 

Tfce Lacedemonians, at the strait of Thermopylae, when their arm* 

failed them, fought it out with their nails and teeth. 
They lorded it over the land with absolute sway. 
When a moral duty is urged, why is it that we hesitate, and ques- 
tion our abilities I 

Away ! away ! so light and free, 
Come, skip it o'er the mead with me; 
Why is it thus so soon to part, 
And send a thrill through every he art ? 
Me goes at it, and makes all his plans work to the end which ha 
has in view. 

WHO. 

1. Who is used as a conjunctive pronoun, to represent some particu- 
lar person, and to connect propositions. Who, and the objective 
whom, are applied to persons only ; whose, the possessive, is applied 
to persons, and sometimes to things, as the possessive of which, not 
legitimately, but by adoption. 

EXAMPLES. 

James is the lad who read his lesson well. 
It was John whom you saw. 
Let it be whose name it may, I do not like it. 
Was it Franklin whose history von mentioned? 
It is the sun whose light beautifies every hour. 
This is the book whose covers you found. 

2. Who is used as a conjunctive pronoun, to represent some nounr 
or pronoun, that expresses generally any one of a society, party,, 
the human family, whether male or female. 

EXAMPLES. 

He who can choose but one, should consider well. 

The man who is in the habit of rising late, should know that he 

may become poor. 
She who has known herself ; has learned what most have yet to 

learn. 
The patriot who bows to the yoke of party spirit, is unworthy the 

name of a patriot. 
Time will come, when he who is great must be good. 

POSITION. 

Pronouns being substituted for nouns, the rules of position given 
for them will apply equally to pronouns. But conjunctive pronouns, 
from their conjunctive character, occupy the position of conjunctions* 
This has been sufficiently painted out in |§ 3£h 4Ct> 4i, 



308" ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

§120. ADJECTIVES. 
RULE IX. 

Adjectives modify substantives. 

Remark 1. — The substantive to which the adjective is prefixed, is 
frequently suppressed, when the sense is sufficiently obvious with- 
out it. 

Remark 2. — Adjectives are sometimes used to modify substantive- 
phrases. 

Remark 3. — An adjective may modify a noun, and an adjective 
joined with it, as a compound term. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is a poor old man. 

She is a smart old lady. 

We saw the red-hot iron. 

Shall we not help this poor feeble man 1 

Remark 4, — Adjectives in the predicate, sometimes modify the 
meaning of the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

The king's ships were getting ready. 

Thick and more thick the steely circle grew. 

He was made just and right. 

The vowel of the preceding syllable should be pronounced short. 

Slow tolls the village clock — deep mourns the turtle. 

Oh ! pale grows the cheek of the chieftain. 

The wind was blowing fresh. 

They have grown old in the service of their country. 

The house has been painted white. 

They are the children, just let loose from school* 

Remark 5. — An adjective of number, must agree in number with 
the substantive it describes. 

EXAMPLE. 
We discovered these men's secret intentions 

Remark 6 — When two adjectives of number describe a noun, one 
expressing unity, and the other plurality, the plural adjective should 
be placed immediately before the noun, and preceded by the siugular. 



RULES OF SYNTAX ADJECTIVES. 309 

EXAMPLES. 

We were very contented after the first few days. 
Take the first six numbers. 

Remark 7. — An or a signifies one, but usually no particular one. 
Hence, it can be applied to nouns in the singular number only, or to 
a plural term used in a comprehensive sense. In this last sense, it is 
used before numeral adjectives of the cardinal kind, in connection 
with few or many, and before any collective word. 

EXAMPLES. 

He led out a (one) hundred men to the congest. 

I shall see him in a few weeks. 

We secured a great many friends by our kindness. 

(1.) When a is used in connection with many, great always inter- 
venes, or a is used after many, in which case many relates to a sin- 
gular noun. 

EXAMPLE. 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

(2.) A is frequently employed, in mercantile business, in the sense 
of to. 

EXAMPLE. 
Good butter sells at $12 a $14 per hundred. 

(3.) A is also frequently used as a preposition, in common con- 
versation. This use is a vulgarism, and should not be tolerated. 

EXAMPLE. 
They have gone a hunting. 

Remark 8. — Every is frequently joined with a plural noun, to give 
it a collective meaning. 

EXAMPLES. 

They hold a session every three years. 

For every one hundred dollars paid in, we are to receive a certifi- 
cate of deposit. 

Remark 9. — All may be used with a singular noun, expressing 
quantity. 

EXAMPLES. 

All prospect of success was cut off. 
All the grain was destroyed. 



310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 10.— -An intransitive verb, of a substantive phrase, may 
have after it an adjective belonging to the subject of the verb sup- 
pressed. (§ 76.) 

Remark 11. — The comparative degree excludes the latter term 
of comparison from the former. 

EXAMPLES. 

This location is better than the other. 
This stick of timber is stronger than that. 

The man who spoke first had a better view of the subject than 
the other. 

Remark 12 — The superlative degree includes the latter term with 
the former. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is the kindest fellow I ever saw. 

He is the slowest workman I ever employed. 

That is the best horse in the lot. 



POSITION. 

1. When the adjective, and noun that it modifies, both belong to the 
subject, or to the predicate of a proposition, the adjective is usually 
placed before the noun. This is not a uniform construction, as nu- 
merous examples, in different parts of this work, will show. 

2. An adjective in the predicate, modifying a substantive in the 
subject, usually follows the verb ; but transpositions of this order are 
admissible.. 

EXAMPLES, 

Dark was the storm. 

Cold was the night. 

Swe^t bloomed the rose. 

Soft blew the gentle zephyrs. 

Wild were the warblings of the birds. 

Sweet was the music, as it fell upon the ear. 

3. An adjective, modifying a pronoun, usually follows the pronoun. 

EXAMPLES. 

We all must be reconciled to our lot. 
We thought them very generous. 
They judged you very extravagant. 
We considered them very inconsistent. 
They every one should know their destiny. 



RULES OF SYNTAX CASE OF THE RECIPIENT. 311 

§121. CASE OF THE RECIPIENT. 

RULE X. 

Tlie recipient of a transitive verb, in the active voice, 
must be in the objective case. 

Remark 1. — When the recipient is a substantive proposition or 
phrase, its substantive character should be noticed by the student? 
and it should be parsed as a noun. ($§ 7Q, 77.) 

Remark 2. — Some verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive 
signification, depending on their use. 

EXAMPLES. 

He has become an actor. 

Such language does not become a gentleman. 

A robe becomes a prince. 

It becomes me to speak carefully of so excellent a man. 

He will return in a few days> 

He will return the book in a few days. 

Rkmark 3.— Intransitive verbs, followed by certain prepositions 5 , 
which form, with the verb, a compound word, become transitive. 
« 70.) 

Remark 4. — Intransitive verbs, used to express causation or per- 
mission, become transitive. 

EXAMPLES. 

He walked hrs horse (caused his horse to walk.) 
The boy flies the kite. 

You must look the subject freely in the face- 
He stopped to breathe his horse. 
They talked the night away. 

Remark 5. — Intransitive verbs often become transitive, by taking 
»fter them a noan of kindred signification with the verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

He sleeps the sleep of death. 
Let me die the death of the righteous. 
You should live the life of the virtuous. 
Dream a dream-. They ran a rse^. 



312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The noun of kindred signification is often materially 
changed by figure of metaphor. 

EXAMPLES. 

Their hinges grate harsh thunder. 

Rivers run potable gold. 

Her lips blush deeper sweets. 

The trees wept odorous gums and balm. 

The crisped brook ran nectar. 

Remark 6. — A transitive verb, without an object, is used in a gen- 
eral sense, and may be regarded as in transitive. 

Remark 7. — Lie and sit, usually intransitive, are often confounded 
with lay and set, usually transitive* 



POSITION. 

1. When the recipient of the transitive verb, in the active voice, is 
a noun, personal pronoun, a substantive proposition, or phrase, it 
usually follows the verb. Other modifiers of the verb may come 
between the verb and its recipient, though their place is more fre- 
quently after the recipient. 

EXAMPLES 

We want the oest oooks. 

Enlarge my life with multitude of days. 

I do not fear such threats. 

O, had his powerful destiny ordained me some inferior angel ! 

He determined to run the career of a glorious emulation. 

(2.) 

We remember, with mingled emotions of sorrow and regret, the 

errors of his youth. 
They lost, in a short time, a vast amount of property* 

2. Transpositions, placing the recipient before the verb, are admis- 
sible in almost all kinds of composition, and are particularly ele- 
gant in poetry and animated prose. 

EXAMPLES. 

Unnumbered melodies his joints invade. 
Nor lute nor lyre his feeble powers attend. 
Where, then, shall hope and fear their objects find ? 

3. When the recipient is a conjunctive or interrogative pronoun, 
or a noun modified by a conjunctive or interrogative adjective, it 
must precede the verb. 



RULES OF SYNTAX CASE AFTER THE PREPOSITION. 313 

EXAMPLES. 

(1.) 
These are the books which you saw. 
He is a man whom you would wish to have seen. 

(2.) 

What has national religion effected in any age ? 
Whom do you propose to send I 

(3.) 

We obtained what favors we wanted. 

He does not know which property he can sell. 

What man did you mention ? 
What favor does he ask ? 



§122, CASE AFTER THE PREPOSITION, 
RULE XI. 

The consequent term of the preposition must be in 
the objective case* 

Remark 1. — A preposition and an adjective are sometimes used in 
the sense of an adverb ; and though such phrases are adverbial, yet 
each word is to be parsed separately. The adjective may be parsed 
as a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

In vain (vainly) do they worship me, teaching for doctrine the 

commandments of men. 
At last (finally) he yielded. 
At first he was obstinate. 
They did it in secret. 

Remark 2. — A preposition and an adverb are sometimes used in 
the sense of an adverb, and then the adverb is to be parsed as a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

They stopped at once. 
They are gone for ever* 
He came from above* 
21 



314! ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

Remark 3.— There are several phrases that are usually regarded 
as compound prepositions; and though this is true enough for the 
purpose of a general analysis, yet, in parsing, the true fore© of eaca 
word should be stated. 

EXAMPLES. 

She acted according to her own pleasure. 

I will say nothing in respect to your differences. . 

In regard to your plans, I am not prepared to advise* 

They fled from before the multitude. 

He went out of the house- 

1 am satisfied as to his designs. 

As for me and my house, we will serre the Lordv 

They went, instead of me. 

He stood over against the hotel. 

They live over on the other side of the mountain. 

Remark 4. — Two prepositions sometimes have a joint reference 
to the same substantive. This k inelegant, and should usually W 
avoided. 

EXAMPLES. 

He is well grounded in, and devoted to, the principles of religion? 
It is predicated upon, and developed by, the exercise of love. 



CONSTRUCTION. 

The remarks on the construction of the preposition, (Rule III.,} 
are sufficient to show the position of the consequent term. 



1123. SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYING VERBS, WITH- 
OUT A CONNECTING PREPOSITION. 

RULE XII. 

The verts ask, teach, choose, render, make, promise* 
allow, pay, offer, bring, build, sing, find, set, send, get, 
and a few others, may be modified by a noun or pronoun, 
denoting the person, without a connecting preposition, 
provided the noun or pronoun comes between the verb 
and its recipient ; but if it comes after the recipient^ the 
preposition is required. (§ 83.) 



THJLES OF SYNTAX. 315 

§124. NOUNS OF TIME, SPACE, K 

RULE XIIL 

Nouns denoting time, space, value, quantity, measure, 
«or direction, may modify verbs and adjectives, without a 
connecting preposition. (§ 83.) 



§125. ABSOLUTE CASE, 

RULE XIV. 

A substantive, having no dependence upon any other 
word, must be put in the absolute case. 

TIe-mark. — There are four varieties of construction entb raced uii&er 
this rule : 

1. Substantives may belli the absolute case, by direct address. 

2. They may he in the absolute case, with a participle. (§ 57.) 

3. They may be in the absolute case, by exclamation. (§ 107.) 

4. They may be in. the absolute case, by pleonasm. (§ 110.) 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The absolute case, with its modifiers, should occupy that position 
which will least interrupt the other members of the sentence. 



§126. INFINITIVE MODE, 
E-ULE XV. 

The infinitive mode describes the state or condition of 
its subject, and is usually preceded by the preposition 
to. (§ 56, Rem. &.) 

Remark 1. — -The infinitive may be connected to its subject by the 
preposition, or to some other word, tho meaning of which it limits. 



316 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

EXAMPLES. 

We desired him to remain. 

The boys urged us to postpone our journey. 

The Jews were obliged to yield to their fate. 

We hope to be prepared to sustain our reputation. 

Expecting to witness some grand display, we took an early start. 

Being accustomed to have his own way, he could not bear restraint. 

We are anxious to repay your kindness. 

She is unable to endure such hardships. 

He is old enough to attend school. 

She is about to visit the South. 

Note. — By inspecting the above examples, it will be perceived, that the preposi- 
tion to may connect the infinitive to a substantive, a verb, an adjective, or ao 
adverb. 

Remark 2. — The infinitive often depends on some word suppressed. 

EXAMPLES. 

To say the least, he has very much erred in his conclusions. 
To tell you the truth, I did oppose such conduct. 

Remark 3. — The infinitive substantive may be in the nominative 
or objective case. 

EXAMPLES. 

To be lazy, is to be regardless of our reputation. 
Children love to play* 

Remark 4. — The infinitive uniformly rejects to when it follows the 
active voice of bid, let, hear, see, and feel ; usually when it follows 
make, need, or dare ; and occasionally when it follows find, have, 
observe, behold, know, watch, and a few others; but if they are 
used in the passive, the preposition must be retained before the in- 
finitive. (§ 56, Rem. 3.) 

Remark 5. — An infinitive, in the passive voice, following some of 
the above verbs in the active, occasionally rejects be, 

EXAMPLES. 

We saw him opposed. 

He made his story believed* 

They had the man imprisoned. 

They heard us rejected. 

I feel myself abused. 



CONSTRUCTION. 



The infinitive usually follows some word that it immediately mod- 
ifies ; yet it may be separated from such word, when the separation 
will produce no obscurity. 



RULES OF SYNTAX — PARTICIPIAL MODE. 317 

§127. PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

RULE XVI. 

A verb in the participial mode, describes the state or 
condition of its subject. (§ 57, Hem. 7.) 

Remark 1. — When the participle is to limit the signification of 
some word which is not its subject, it requires a preposition to con- 
nect it to such word ; yet the participle is always to be referred to 
its subject, and then the modifying power of the phrase, of which 
the participle is the principal word, is to be pointed out. 

EXAMPLES. 

(10 

On rising to the surface, I recollected in a moment what had be- 
fallen me. 

The ideas express the primordial laws of knowing, thinking, and 
reasoning. 

Another fault is in the company's refusing to commute. 

The interest of the thing does not arise from having arrived at an 
ultimate cause. 

I never saw the w r orst bred man living, guilty of lolling, whistling, 
and such like indecencies, in company that he respected. 

Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire of 
living. 

He was tired of walking round the same circle. 

A well-trained mind kept her from running into excesses. 

Mary was polite, affable, insinuating, sprightly, and capable of 
speaking and of writing with equal ease and dignity. 

(2.) 

I was obliged to prove my title to the honor of being useful to my 
country. 

The character of the reputed ancestors of some men, has made it 
possible for their descendants to be vicious in the extreme, with- 
out being degenerate. 

By being kind, I have won his confidence. 

(3.) 
You live like Charles II., without being an amiable companion. 
He has labored hard to earn the reputation of being a rogue, 

(4-) 
I close, then, sir, with repeating, that the object of this resolution 

is, to avail ourselves of the interesting occasion of the Greek 

Revolution, to make our protest against the doctrines of the Al» 

lied Powers. 
Piety, after guarding her from the snares of youth, cheered her 

amidst the accumulated trials of an afflicted life. 
Saints wait with fervent hope of renewing their joy over your 

repeatence. 



■318 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



The desires impel man to exert his causality in appropriating the 
materials supplied him from the earth, in working in various 
arts, and in modifying the face of nature. 

In knowing the world, the mind is developed. 

With the restless desire of seeing different countries, I have always 
resided in the same city. 

I really think that, next to the consciousness of doing a good ac- 
tion, that of doing a civil one is the most pleasing. 

The reason for so doing is, that his failing health will not allow of 
his performing the arduous duties of chief engineer. 

Lord Chatham began by lamenting, that his bodily infirmities had 
prevented his attendance on Parliament. 

Without dividing, he destroyed party ; without corrupting, he 
made a venal age unanimous. 

I could not have reposed my head upon my pillow, without giving 
vent to my eternal abhorrence of such principles. 

In that way of putting things together, his Grace is perfectly in 
the right. 

I did not find him blamed for reprehending, and with considerable 
degree of verbal asperity, those ill-natured neighbors of his. 

Cautious, therefore, of giving offense, I shall leave the illustration 
of your virtues to other hands. 

After having reproached the Duke for corruption, the splendid 
tirade of Junius concludes. 

A. mind, long habituated to a certain set of objects, insensibly be- 
comes fond of seeing them. 

I have done so, in the conscious conviction of doing what is right. 

No one possessed, in an equal degree, the rare talent of command- 
ing an assembled multitude. 

(5.) 

I was imprisoned, without being ever confronted by my accusers. 

He was on the point -of being dethroned. 

On being apprised of his danger, he left the country. 

He was blamed for being duped by such villainous men. 

After having been employed in the public service for some fifty 
years, he retired to a quiet retreat, to spend the evening of his 
days in solitude. 

We must not yield the victory, in consequence of being so violently 
opposed, 

(6.) 

He is himself to blame for having been rendered so miserable. 

By being supposed poor, he received many small presents. 

(70 

After having been made the dupe of a faction, I must suffer the 

opprobrium of the public. 
By being appointed chief engineer, he was introduced into the 

society of some of the first men of his age. 

Remark 2. — The participle often depends on some word sup- 
pressed ; particularly is this true, when the expression is to be 
faken in a general sense, 



RULES OF SYNTAX INTERJECTIONS. 319 

EXAMPLES. 

Generally speaking, their schools are well conducted. 

Comparing these principles, it is manifest that they must have 

originated from the same source. 
Considering his profligacy, it would be unsafe to trust him. 
Granting the premises, the conclusion must necessarily follow. 
Supposing that you get your case, what advantage will it give yon. 
Lie not one to another, seeing that you have put off the old man, 

with his deeds. 
Owing to his irregular habits, the community have no confidence 

in him. 
Such language, regarding it in its real character, was extremely 

censurable. 

Note. — The words suppressed, to which each of the foregoing participles re- 
epectively relate, are in the absolute case. 

Remark 3. — A participle may refer to a sentence, or part of a 
sentence, taken in a substantive sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

According to report, it is not likely that we shall be kept long in 

suspense. 
The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel. 
Your zeal should be according to knowledge. 

Remark 4. — When the participle has lost the force, — peculiar to? 
the verb, — of being or doing, it may be a noun or an adjective, but 
is no longer a verb. 

EXAMPLES. 

The triumphing of the wicked is of short continuance. 
The shoutings of the multitude, and the contendings of different 
factions, disturbed our repose. 

(2.) 

The burning fuel wastes away. 

A scolding woman is a thorn in the flesh; 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The participle, when it is the consequent term of a prepositionv 
may occupy any position in a sentence which does not obstruct the 
dependence of words, nor render the sense obscure. 



§128. INTERJECTIONS. 

RULE XVII. 

Interjections have no dependence upon construction. 



320 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 129. THE ELEMENTS OF A PERFECT SENTENCE, 

The elements of a perfect sentence are perspicuity, 
unity, strength, and harmony. 

Definition 1. — Perspicuity is using such words, and 
6uch a collocation of words, as shall express clearly the 
precise thought designed to be communicated to others. 

I. In respect to the choice of words, three things are to be kept 
in mind *. purity, propriety, and precision. 

Definition (1.) — Purity consists in the use of such words, and 
such constructions, as shall agree with well authorized usage. 

Definition (2.)— Propriety consists in such an application of words 
as shall agree with well authorized usage. 

Remark.— Purity has reference to the use of words that are good 
English ; and propriety has reference to a good English application. 

Definition (3.) — Precision consists in using words that express 
exactly the thought designed to be conveyed. 

6 Remark. — Want of precision is one of the most common errors 
committed by writers. This arises from using too many words, or 
an insufficient number, or such as express a different thought from 
the one intended. The use of a superabundance of words is called 
tautology, verbosity, or redundancy. It may consist in a redundaiicy 
of words, phrases, or clauses. This does not uniformly destroy the 
perspicuity of a sentence, yet frequently does. Redundancy of 
words is to the mind what a superabundance of food is to the stom- 
ach. There are two very fruitful sources of obscurity in writing, 
that ought to be carefully noticed : the first is, the use of words as 
synonyms that are not perfectly synonymous ; and the second is, the 
use of the same word in different parts of a sentence, in different 
senses. The last is known among rhetoricians by the name of cata- 
chresis. 

II. Perspicuity in respect to the collocation of words. No remarks 
need be made here, on the subject of the collocation of words, since 
what is suggested on construction, under the different rules of syntax, 
may be deemed sufficient for all purposes. 

Definition 2. — Unity in a sentence consists in the 
presentation of a single object of thought. 

The following rules are given by rhetoricians, as necessary in se- 
curing this important quality in a sentence : 

1. Things that have little connection with each other, should 
never be crowded into the same sentence. 

2. The subject should be changed as little as possible during the 
course of a sentence. 

3. A lengthy parenthetic clause should be avoided. 

4. The sentence should be brought to a perfect close. 



ELEMENTS OP A SENTENCE. 32J 

Definition 3. — Strength of a sentence consists in such 
a disposition of all the words, phrases, and clauses, as 
shall make the strongest impression on the mind. 

The rules relating to strength, usually laid down, are the follow- 
ing: 

1. Clear a sentence of all redundant words and members. 

2. Let all the connectives be so placed as to show, beyond the pos- 
sibility of doubt, the terms connected. 

3. Dispose of the prominent or important words in a sentence, in 
that position where they will make the fullest impression. 

4. When a sentence is composed of several members, so arrange 
them that they shall increase in importance, one above another. 

5. Avoid closing a sentence with an adverb, or any inconsiderable 
word. 

Definition 4. — Harmony consists in the choice of such 
words, and such a distribution of words, phrases, and 
clauses, as shall be easy of utterance, and present no 
harshness or discord to the ear. 

connection of sentences. 

In ever) 7 variety of composition, the sentences and different parts 
of the whole should have an easy and natural relation to each other. 
Unity is as essential an element, in the treatment of a subject, as in 
the composition of a single sentence. However great the variety of 
illustration and argument by which any subject may be discussed 
and enforced, all should seem to flow naturally — so connected as to 
form a continuous chain, from which no link should be wanting. To 
attain this, requires much patient study, carefully examining the best 
classical authors, and extensive practice in writing. 

He who would hope to excel in expressing his thoughts freely 
and forcibly, should make himself master of the Greek and Latin 
classics, in the original tongues. 

One of the best practical exercises for the student, who is not con- 
versant with the ancient classics, is the translation of poetry into 
prose. Thorough drilling in this delightful exercise, for a single 
year, will give a beginner a surprising command of the language, 
and great facility in composition. 

different kinds of composition. 

All kinds of composition may be embraced in two general classes, 
prose and poetry. 

Some of the different species of prose composition are epistles, 
essays, biographies, memoirs, histories, philosophies (physical, intel- 
lectual, and moral,) sermons, lectures, orations, novels, and narra- 
tives. To take up each of these species of composition, and discuss 
it, would extend these pages beyond proper limits. Yet, a few re- 
marks on epistolary writing could not be well omitted. 



322 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

EPISTOLARY WRITING. 

Good taste in the composition of a letter, requires attention to ths 
following particulars: — I. The name of the place, and the date, 
should be near the right hand corner of the sheet. 2. The address 
should be a little lower down, on the left hand side. 3. The body 
of the letter should commence on a line immediately below, and at 
the close of the address. 4. The complimentary close should com- 
mence one or two words farther from the edge of the paper than the 
body of the letter does, and terminate similarly on the right. 5. 
The signature should be placed on a line below the complimentary 
close, near the right hand side. 6. The name of the individual ad- 
dressed must be on a line still lower down, near the left hand side. 
7. The title, if any other than such as is expressed by abbreviations 
should follow just below the name of the individual adressed. 

Here follows an example, illustrative of these particulars : — 

Prospect Grove, Jan. 15, 1849. 
My dear Sir, — 

The page3 of the Grammar, which you forwarded to me, by 
Mr. D. C. Green, of this place, have been duly received. I am highly gratified 
with the typographical execution, and the general good taste every where displayed 
in getting up the work. You have evidently bestowed much care in the correction; 
of the proof sheets, and have conducted the whole supervision in a most satisfac- 
tory manner. Yours respectfully, 

W. C. KEN YON* 
Rev. Geo. B. Utter. 

Remark. — Letters, designed to be particularly formal, require that 
the name of the individual addressed should occupy the place of the 
complimentary address, and the name of the place and the date 
should occupy the place of the superscription. 

Folding and Directing a Letter. — If a letter is to be enclosed 
in an envelop, it may be folded in the simplest manner that will 
adapt it to the envelop ; or, it may be folded in conformity with the 
following plan, which does not require an envelop: — 1. With the 
sheet before you, in the same position as you commence writing, 
fold one-fourth of the upper half of the sheet to the left hand. 

2. Fold from the bottom, towards the top, one-fourth of both parts. 

3. Fold from the top, towards the bottom, one-fourth of both parts, 

4. Fold from the left, so that the folded parts shall just reach the line 
of the first fold. 5. Fold from the right, on a line with the first 
fold, and place the folded parts of the first fold within the parts of 
the last fold. This will give the place for the seal exactly in tft© 
middle of the letter. 

Sealing. — Business letters, requiring dispatch, may be sealed with 
wafers. Letters of friendship, of literary correspondence, &c, should 
be sealed with sealing-wax. Letters of introduction should not be 
sealed. 

The Superscription. — Lay the letter so that the line of the last 
fold shall be next to you. Commence the superscription at, or a 
little to the left of, the middle of the back of the letter. The names 
of the town, county, and state, follow each other in succession, each 
commencing successively a little farther toward the right. 



FIGURES OP RHETORIC. 323 

§130. FIGURES OF FtHETORIC. 

Definition. — A figure of rehetoric is a deviation from 
the ordinary application of words. 

Remark. — Only a very general view of figurative language can 
here be given ; sufficient, however, to furnish the scholar with the 
leading facts in that department of knowledge. 

Specification. — The figures of rhetoric of the most 
frequent occurrence are simile, metaphor, personification, 
irony, hyperbole, antithesis, metonomy, synecdoche, apos- 
trophe, interrogation, exclamation, vision, climax, anti- 
climax, and alliteration. 

Definition 1. — A simile is a direct comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 
The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. 
The rattling din came rolling on, like thunder 1 * distant tone. 

Definition 2. — A metaphor is an indirect comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 
His eye was morning's brightest ray. 
Wild fancies in his moody brain, 
GamboVd, unbridled and unbound. 
Remark.' — Under the head of metaphor, are included the allegory, 
the parable, the fable, the riddle, and the allusion. 

Definition (1.) — " An allegory is a continued metaphor," or, "fig- 
urative description of real facts." 

EXAMPLE. 
The trees went forth on a time to anoint a king over tliem ; and they said unto 
the olive-tree, Reign thou over us. But the olive-tree said unto thern, Should I 
leave my fatness "wherewith by me they honor God and man, and go to be 
promoted, over the trees ? And the trees said to the fig-tree, Come thou, and 
r^ign over us. But the fig-tree said unto them, Should I forsake my sweetness, 
and my good fruit, aud go to be promoted over the trees ? Then said the tree9 
unto thevine, Come thou, and reign over us. And the vine said unto them, 
Should I leave my wine, which cheereth God and man, and go to be promoted 
over the trees i Then said the trees unto the bramble, Come thou, and reign 
over us. And the bramble said unto the trees, If, in truth, ye anoint me king 
over you, then come, and put your trust in my shadow ; and, if not, let fire 
come out of the bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebanon. 

Definition (2.) — A parable is the presentation of some important 
truth, in the form of a supposed history. 
EXAMPLE. 
There was in a city a judge, which (who) feared not God, neither regarded man ; 
and there was a widow in that city; and she came unto him, saying, Avenge 
me of mine adversary. And he would not for a while ; but afterward he said 
within himself, Though I fear not God, nor regard man, yet because this 
widow troubleth me, 1 will avenge her, lest by her continual coining she 
weary me. 

Definition (3.) — A fable, or apologue, is the presentation of some 
important truth, under the form of a fictitious narration. 



whh 



Definition (4.) — The riddle, or enigma, is a species of allegory, iu 
bich the meaning is concealed as faras Possible, 



324 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. * 

EXAMPLE. 

Out of the eater came forth meat ; and out of the strong came forth sweetness. 

Definition (5.) — Allusion is a reference to some striking incident 
in the history of the world, to illustrate, in a forcible manner, some 
truth. 

EXAMPLE. 

It were better for a man to marry Lot's wife, than to marry a woman unac- 
quainted with domestic duties. 

Definition 3. — Personification is, (1) ascribing some 
of the properties of living creatures to inanimate objects ; 

(2) representing inanimate objects as acting like living 
creatures ; or, (3) representing inanimate objects as speak- 
ing, or listening to speech. These are called the first, 
second, and third degrees of personification. 

EXAMPLES. 
Joy has her tears, and transport has her death- 
The offended Law draws her sword from the scabbard, in vengeance 

against the murderer. 
Truth replies, that thou art free. 
Sweet-scented flower, thou shalt form my nosegay now 

Definition 4. — Irony makes language express the di- 
rect reverse of its ordinary meaning. 

EXAMPLES. 

Cry aloud, for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, 
or he is on a journey, or, peradventure, he 6leepeth, and must 
be awakened. 

And Job answered, and said, No doubt ye are the people, and 
wisdom shall die with you. 

Definition 5.— Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. 

EXAMPLES. 
With fury driven, the waves mount up, and wash the face of heaven. 
The sky shrunk upward with untisual dread, 
And trembling Tiber dived beneath his bed. 

Definition 6. — Antithesis contrasts two or more things 
with each other. 

EXAMPLES. 
Zealous, though modest; innocent, though free. 
By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as deceiv- 
ers, and yet true. 

Definition 7. — -Metonomy puts one thing for another : 
(1) the cause for the effect; (2) the effect for the cause; 

(3) the container for the thing contained; (4) an attribute 
or quality for the thing or person. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 325 

EXAMPLES. 
Shall the sword devom forever? He has returned to his cups again. 
Definition 8. — Synecdoche is the naming of a part for 
the whole, or the whole for a part. 

EXAMPLES. 
My roof shall shelter thee from the driving storm. 
They inhabit the islands of the seas. 

Definition 9. — Apostrophe is a sudden transition from 
the subject of a discourse, to address some person or 
thing, present or absent. 

example. 
This is a tale for fathers and for mothers. Young men and young 
women ! you can not understand it. 

Definition 10. — Interrogation expresses a positive af- 
firmation, in the form of a question. 
examples. 

Looks it not like the king ? 

He that formed the eye, shall he not see ? 

Definition 11. — Exclamation is the language of strong 
passion or excitement. 

Definition 12. — Vision represents a past or future 
scene, as now transpiring before the view. 
example. 
I see them on their winding way ; 
About their ranks the moon-beams play. 

Definition 13. — Climax is that form of expression by 
which the thoughts are made to rise by successive grada- 
tions. 

example. 

He aspires to the highest ; above the people, above the authorities, 
above the laws, above his COUNTRY. 

Definition 14.— Anti-climax is the opposite of the climax. 

example. 
How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into dread, 
and dread into DESPAIR. 

Definition 15.— Alliteration is the repetition of the 
same letter at the beginning of two or more words, imme- 
diately succeeding each other, or at short intervals. 

EXAMPLES. 
Up the Aigh Mil he leaves a huge round stone. 
He carves, with classic chisel, the Corinthian capital that crowns 
the column. 



*2G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PART IV, 



§ 131. PROSODY. 

Definition 1. — Prosody treats of poetry. 
Definition 2. — Poetry is metrical composition. 

Definition 3.-— Metre is the division of a verse into a 
certain number of feet. 

Definition 4.— -A verse is a poetical line. 

Definition 5. — Poetic feet are the divisions of averse, 
regulating the proper succession of accented and unac- 
cented syllables. 

Specification. — There are eight kinds of poetic feet : 
Trochee, iambus, spondee, pyrrhic, dactyl, amphibrach, 
anapest, and tribrach ; but the trochee, iambus, dactyl, 
and anapestie, are the principal varieties. 

Definition 1. — The trochee consists of one long and 
one short syllable- 

EXAMPLE. 
On a | mountain | stretched, be|neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | viewed the \ roaring | billow. 

Definition 2. — The iambus consists of one short and 
one long syllable. 

EXAMPLE. 
Here rests | his head \ upon | the lap | of earth, 
A youth | to for | tune and | to fame | unknown; 
Fair scijence smiled | not on | his humjble birth, 
And mel|ancho|ly marked | him for | her own. 

Definition 3. — The spondee consists of two long syl- 
lables, and occurs in connection with one of the principal 
varieties. 

EXAMPLES. 
Then soon the sufferer sinks to rest. 
Then low was he who nobly stemmed the tide. 

Definition 4. — The pyrrhic consists of two short syl- 
lables, and occurs in connection with one of the principal 
rarieties. 






PROSOUY, v "' 

EXAMPLE. 

If aught be welcome to our sylvan shed, 
Be it the trav7er who has lost his way. 

Definition 5, — The dactyl consists of one long and 
two short syllables. 

EXAMPLE. 

Warriors and | chiefs ! should the | shaft or the | sword 
Pierce one while | leading the | hosts of the [ Lord? 

Definition 6. — The anapest consists- of two short 
syllables and one long one. 

EXAMPLE. 

May I govjern my pasjsions with abjsolule sway, 
And grow wis |er and bet[ ter as life 1 wears away. 

Definition 7. — The amphibrach consists of two short 
syllables, with a long one intervening, and occurs in con- 
nection with one of the principal varieties. 

EXAMPLE. 
O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 

Definition &. — The tribrach consists of three short 
syllables. 

EXAMPLE. 
Innumerable before the Almighty throne. 

SCANNING. 

Definition. — Scanning is the act of separating a Terse into the 
number of feet of which it is composed. 

RHYME AND BLANK-VERSE, 

Definition 1. — Rhyme is a similarity of sound in the final syllable 
of two successive or alternate verses r or of such as follow each other 
at no great distance. The rhyme is sometimes extended to more 
than two lines. 

Definition 2. — Blank-verse is metrical composition, in which verses 
do not terminate in similarity of sound. 

STANZA. 

Definition. — A stanza is a number of verses, connected with each 
other, and followed by a full pause. 

HARMONIC PAUSES. 

Definition. — Harmonic pauses are cessations of the voice, for the 
sake of the melody. 

Specification. — They are the final pause, the caesural pause, and 
sometimes the demi-csesurah 



7 9 ¥9 T\- 

U 



2 

328 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^^^ ^"# 

Definition 1. — -The final pause occurs at the end of each verse, 
irrespective of any grammatical relations. 

Definition 2. — The ccesural pause occurs at any convenient syllabic 
near the middle of a verse. 

Definition 3. — The demi-caesural pause is a division of the caesural. 

EXAMPLE. 

Warms | in the sun, || refreshes | in the breeze, 
Glows | in the stars, jj and blossoms | in the trees ; 
Lives I through all lives, |j extends through j all extent, 
Spreads J undivided, || operates | unspent. 

METRE. 

This term is applied to the number of measures, or feet, of which 
verses are composed ; thus, heptameter, seven feet ; hexameter, six 
feet; pentameter, live feet, &c In psalmody, when each line of a 
stanza has eight syllables, it is called long metre ; when the first and 
third lines have eight syllables, and the second and fourth have six 
syllables, it is called common metre ; when the third line has eight 
syllables, and the others six, it is called short metre. The various 
kinds of stanzas that differ from those just named, are called particu- 
lar metres. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 

1. Pastoral. — The common incidents peculiar to pastoral life, 
brought out in poetry. 

2. Lyric — *\dapted to music. There are four varieties : 1. sacred ? 
2. heroic; 3. moral and philosophical ; 4. festive and amorous. 

3. Didactic has in view instruction. Young's Night Thoughts a 
good example. 

4. Descriptive. — A description of events, scenes, the phenomena 
of nature, &c. Thompson's Seasons a good example. 

5. Epic — The recital of some illustrious enterprise in poetic form. 
Milton's Paradise an example. 

6. Dramatic — Designed for the stage. There are two kinds: 1. 
Tragedy — the presentation of the grave and terrible incidents of life. 
2 Comedy — the presentation of the follies and vices of mankind in 
ridicule. 

Remark. — The six varieties of poetry mentioned above, embrace 
all the more important kinds. Besides these, there are a few others 
that might be mentioned — epigram, epitaph, sonnet, elegy, parody, &c. 

POETIC LICENSE. 

Poetic license is the peculiar deviations, admissible in poetry, from 
those forms and applications of words, idioms, constructions, &c, re- 
quired in prose. 

Remark. — It were useless to give more than the mere glance of 
poetry here presented, unless it were practicable to go into an in- 
vestigation in detail. Let this, then, suffice. 



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